Features of bsp as a type of complex sentence. Unionless proposal, its differential features

1. The history of the study of non-union complex sentences.

2. The concept of a non-union complex sentence and its differential features.

3. Means of communication of predicative parts in a non-union complex sentence.

4. Unionless complex sentences of homogeneous and heterogeneous composition; open and closed structures of non-union proposals.

5. Non-union complex sentences of typed and non-typed structures.

Additional literature:

1. Beloshapkova V.A. Modern Russian language. Syntax. Textbook for philol. specialties of un-comrade. - M., 1977. - S. 234-243.

2. Modern Russian: Theory. Analysis of language units: textbook. for stud. higher textbook institutions: At 2 hours - Part 2: Morphology. Syntax / Ed. E.I. Dibrova. - M., 2001. - S. 573-580.

1. Write out non-union complex sentences from the text, mark from the differential signs and means of communication of predicative parts.

Nature is stingy, stingy, but suddenly becomes generous and so endows a person with an ideal character that people around are only amazed. And he himself does not seem to notice this: he walks with a light gait on the ground, chuckles mischievously, any burden is on his shoulder. A serious matter in his hands looks like a game - the game turns into a serious matter. He irresistibly attracts people - he has half the world in his comrades. It is boring for him to live without fiction, adventure. No rainbow seems bright enough to him; he would gladly add an eighth to her seven colors, if that were possible. He is carelessly generous, and fate, fearing for the consequences of such thriftiness, prudently rewards him with leaky pockets. Sharp-tongued, he spares the main thing in people - their dignity, and they easily let down to him what they would not forgive others. Everyone who meets him on the way excites in him an inexpressible curiosity. He is sure of one thing: any person is talented in his own way, hidden opportunities lurk in everyone. And people, feeling this interest, open up before him from a side unexpected for themselves: let it be opened to him who knocks! He is condescending to people, good qualities in his eyes have more weight than bad ones. The mind is clear, the thought is flexible and precise; vague reasoning and lofty words he cannot stand. He is a splendid comrade, he does not like to subordinate, just as he does not like to obey.

The naturalness of this character is always opposed to any panache. A person does absolutely nothing to impress others, to show himself from a favorable side. On the contrary, since he has an innate sense of humor, he laughs at himself, points out his own mistakes, and gives himself no mercy in anything.

(According to S. Narovchatov)

2. Write out 2 examples of non-union complex sentences of homogeneous and heterogeneous composition from works of fiction.

3. Describe the structural types of non-union complex sentences:

1. Here, with the voice of a goblin, a bittern cried out on the island - Ilka had cold sweat on his forehead(Ast.). 2. A chipmunk ran somewhere, a fox jumped ashore(Ast.). 3. It was already clear: they would not leave the alloy(Ast.). 4. The muscles were weakening, the head was turbid, the fingers slipped off the burning stone(Ast.). 5. I looked around, I see: a Cossack is galloping from the fortress, holding a Bashkir horse in the reins and making signs to me from afar(P.). 6. Now he understood one thing: in giving to his small, preoccupied wife, he drew strength and joy to live(Bend.). 7. This day was strange - such things happen only in a dream(Fad.).

4. Make a linguistic commentary on the text.

Ivan learned from the guest's story how the beloved spent the day. She came and first of all put on an apron, and in the narrow hall, where there was that very sink, which the poor patient was proud of, she lit a kerosene stove on a wooden table, and prepared breakfast, and served it in the first room on an oval table. When there were thunderstorms in May, and water noisily rolled past the blinded windows into the gateway, threatening to flood the last shelter, lovers fired up the stove and baked potatoes in it. The potatoes were steaming, the black potato husks stained my fingers, and laughter was heard in the cellar. The trees in the garden were thrown off after the rain broken off twigs, white brushes. When the storms ended and the sweltering summer came, flowers appeared in the vase. long awaited and both favorite roses.

(M. Bulgakov)

1. Give a historical commentary on the sound appearance and grammatical features of the word form HEARD. Is the sound Ш the same in origin in the word forms HEARED, WALKED, STuffy?

2. Do the underlined word forms belong to the same part of speech? Determine their morphemic composition and word formation method. Justify your answer.

3. Find complex sentences, determine the types of subordinate clauses. Build a diagram of the sentence highlighted in the text.

4. Find a non-union complex sentence, determine the structural type.

5. Determine whether this fragment belongs to one or another functional type of speech, naming two or three of its most obvious linguistic features as an argument.

Associative compound sentences.

A non-union sentence is a sentence, the parts of which are interconnected in meaning, intonation and the order of the parts.

Semantic relations are derived from the lexico-semantic content of the parts.

Implicit relations in BP.

There can be implicit relations between parts only if they do not simply follow from the content of the parts, but follow in an obvious way. The obviousness of semantic relations in the non-union sentence can be based on the everyday experience of the speakers: Russian athletes won - we are proud of them. I will make cabbage rolls today: Petya will come.

What activates "implicit" syntax?

1. I did not go for a walk: it was cold. (the intonation of completeness is only in the last part; in terms of meaning, the causal relationship is the rheme of the statement)

I didn't go for a walk. It was cold. (both parts are completed intonation. Relations of reason are not rhemes of the statement)

2. She is lying / pressure has risen. (causal relationship)

She lies / pressure rises. (Relationships of time, conditions)

The different nature of the semantic relations of the parts depends on the different understanding of the species-temporal forms of verbs-predicates.

3. Masha wants to eat / cook porridge.

Boil porridge / Masha wants to eat.

The order of the parts can modify the semantic relationships.

Intonation is not the main means of expressing semantic relationships.

Types of intonation in BP

1) Enumeration - creates an extended structure, is appropriate in book and colloquial speech

2) Comparative

3) Conditioned

4) Explanatory

The last three types are commonly used in colloquial speech.

The syntactic form of the non-union sentence.

BP has its own syntactic form. In the syntactic form of the sentence, the semantic relations of the parts embedded in the lexico-semantic content are activated.

Implicit semantic relations of intonation, species-temporal forms of predicates, the sequence of parts are activated.

Semantic types of non-union relations.

1) Homogeneous composition

2) Inhomogeneous composition

3) Transition type

BP of homogeneous composition

Approach in terms of values ​​and structural features to the BSC

The semantic uniformity of the parts and the same attitude towards the complex whole are characteristic. It is a fine summer day, the water in the lake does not stir.

Semantic Relations in BP of Homogeneous Composition

1) Enumeration relations

2) Parting relations

3) Comparative relations of BP of a heterogeneous type

Approaches on values ​​and structural signs to SPP.

In terms of meaning, the parts are of different types and depend on one another.

Semantic relations of BP of heterogeneous composition.

1) Object

2) Determinants

3) Conditional

4) Temporary

5) Mode of action

6) Investigative

7) Comparative

8) Target

PSU transitional type:

Transitional are: - Unionless with explanatory relations (words can be inserted between the two parts, namely), resembling the relationship between the generalizing word and homogeneous members of the sentence. For example: The weather was terrible: the wind howled, wet snow fell in flakes ... The main part of the statement is contained in the first part, but at the same time, the sentences of the second part have a certain semantic independence.

Non-union with accession relations, for example: The Russian intelligentsia grew and developed in absolutely brutal conditions - this is undeniable (A woman will throw herself into the pool of love with her head - here is an actress

The independence of the second part in such cases is infringed by the presence at the beginning of its words this, that, that's what and others, understandable only from the context.

Non-union with adversative-concessive relations, non-union complex sentences with adversative-concessive relations (cf. the same nature of sentences with conjunctions although - but, forming a pair consisting of subordinating and coordinating unions). For example: I have been serving for sixteen years - this has never happened to me; You look at the image - you will not become a saint. In these examples, it is possible to insert an adversative union (a, but) and at the same time use unions that formalize the addition of a concessive clause (although - but).

Compound sentences with a definitive clause relating to the pronoun (indicative or attributive) in the main are characterized by the following features: 1) the pronoun of the main part is constructively obligatory; 2) the subordinate part concretizes the meaning of this pronoun, explains its content (the term "determinative" is used, therefore, conditionally, with the meaning "revealing the content").

In the sentence, He made either terrible, or affectionate and approving eyes, hissed at those who sang incorrectly, and with a barely noticeable trembling of the outstretched palm restrained those who were carried away (Cupr.) is impossible without this relation, because there are no other words that could be defined by this subordinate clause. The same is found in the sentence And yet I have always envied those who got up on the bugle (S. Bar.). The pronoun is also constructively obligatory in those cases when it is included in the enumeration series with nouns or in a separate turnover, where, in order to avoid repetition, it replaces the noun already named in the main part: More and more often unusual, strange and complex thoughts, like those that so shocked him a month ago (Cupr.).

The constructive obligation of a pronoun in the main part with a definitive clause in the described type of sentences is emphasized by those cases when this pronoun is omitted. The adjectival attributive part immediately becomes explanatory: Whoever is used to fighting for victory, let him sing along with us (L.-K.).

The attributive clause relating to the pronoun in the main one is attached to it with the help of relative (union) words and conjunctions. In accordance with this, two structural types are distinguished - pronominal-correlative and pronominal-union correlative.

The definitive and demonstrative pronouns all, each, anyone, any act as correlative words; that, such, such.

The subordinate clauses are attached to the main one with the help of allied words who, what, what, what, which, whose, as well as conjunctions like, as if, as if, what, in order to. With the definitive pronouns all, everyone, everyone, anyone, the relative words who, which, whose are related: Everyone whom he saw here had his own special knowledge ... (Fed.); It happened, whoever passes, everyone will praise, no one will condemn (P.).

The relative words who, which, whose correspond to the pronoun that. For example: I am the one whose gaze destroys hope, as soon as hope blossoms, I am the one whom no one loves and curses everything that lives (L.); And let the one who invented my torment punish me (L.), It must be that all those who watched this scene from the outside understood its dangerous meaning (Kupr.).

The subordinate clauses, specifying the meaning of the pronouns all, each, anyone, any and that, establish identity between persons or between objects.

The subordinate parts, revealing the content of the definitive pronouns such, such, give a qualitative description of a person or object.

With the pronoun such, allied words what and conjunctions what, as if, as, as if; with the pronoun such - allied words what, what and unions what, how. For example: His handwriting was round, without pressure, beautiful and indifferent, the way military clerks write (Kupr.); What is the summer, such is the hay (last). Quality can be determined by indicating the effect and degree: The heat is such that traces burn in the sand (N.); and also by comparison with something completely or approximately similar: He looked as if someone had offended him; His expression was as if he had not slept for a long time.

Defining clauses in the pronominal-correlative type can be located both after the main one and before it, in the pronominal-union correlative type - after the main one.

35. Dismembered SPP. their main types.

The RSPP system consists of signs:

1) The main part can exist independently, does not need to spread the appendage..

2) Attachment.h. correlated with the main body as a whole.

3) The use of semantic unions is characteristic.

4) The classification is based on the nature of the semantic relations between the parts, expressed semantic. union.

RSPP are allied conditions (namely, causal, conditional, concessive, target, consequences), temporary, comparative, and also happen with a weak correlation (relatively spreading and connecting) + tab. with unions!

36. BSP of homogeneous and inhomogeneous composition. Open and closed structure.

It is a fragment of the syntactic system, which is still largely unknown to science. This is explained by the fact that for a long time the attention of scientists was drawn to the facts of codified literary speech and literary language. (Normalized language and speech). Meanwhile, the scope of the BSP is mainly spoken language and speech. Nevertheless, many scientists paid attention to BSP-Vostok, Potebnya, Peshkovsky. They described and considered BSPs, but did not single them out as an independent type, but distributed them among SSPs and SSPs. In the first editions of the Russian syntax, Peshkovsky says that it is necessary to separate from. But over time, he began to identify intonation with separate groups of unions. Chess took the same position. In other words, BSP were called sentences with omitted conjunctions. The sentences were divided into composed and subordinate ones, and the need to describe and study the semantics and structure of the BSP proper disappeared. This point of view turned out to be untenable and illegal for two reasons:
1- in the BSP of a closed structure, the opposition of composition and subordination is removed. Such BSPs can be replaced by both SSPs and SSPs. For example, Peshkovsky analyzed: Morning will come, let's go to the forest. He argued that the subordinating conjunction was missing in this sentence. But a mutual union is also possible.
2- in some cases, replacing an union-free complex sentence with an allied one is impossible, because it is necessary not only to insert a union, but to change the lexical composition of the sentence, insert the missing elements, words. I looked around: the night was solemn and regal.

Since the 1950s, a different view of the BSP began to spread. Pospelov proposed to consider the BSP as a type opposed to the allied ones. He based the division on a semantic criterion and proposed to divide it into two types: sentences of homogeneous composition and heterogeneous. Beloshapkova divided the BSP into an open and a closed structure. Eventually:
I - proposals of homogeneous composition
1. Enumeration relation (open structure)
a) with the meaning of simultaneity
b) with the meaning of following
2. Comparative (hereinafter all of the closed structure)
II - Offers of heterogeneous composition
1. Conditional clauses
2. Explanatory
a) with formal indicators of the lack of independence of parts
- lack of independence of the first part is expressed lexically
- the lack of independence of the first part is expressed in its incompleteness
- the lack of independence of the second part is expressed lexically
b) without formal indicators of the lack of independence of parts
- sentences of causal explanation
- clarification
- consequences - conclusions
- connecting
III - a proposal of complex composition (the structure is determined in parts)

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION - the absence of a union leads to the mobilization of other means of communication of predicative parts: intonation, correlation of types of temporary forms (that is, a sequence of actions), lexical indicators.

Enumeration relations have an open structure. That is, this open structure can potentially be distributed. In these sentences, syntactic uniformity is realized.
COMPARATIVE PROPOSITIONS (closed structure - binary)
In addition to comparative intonation, the means of communication conceals synth parallelism, lexical elements-antonyms, incompleteness of the second part and often the first part is negative. I would be glad to serve, it is sickening to serve. Dash signs, sometimes a comma.
CONDITIONAL PROPOSALS
Conditionality of two kinds: purely conditional meaning, non-differentiated conditional-temporal. Features of conditionality clauses:
- closed structure
- binomial structure
- in the second part there is a syntactic position of the final particle - so then that.
EXPLANATORY SENTENCES
With formal indicators of non-independence of parts:
1-non-independence of the new part is expressed lexically, that is, in the first part of such a sentence there is a word of informative insufficiency, the second part specifies it
I can tell you only one thing: you can not sit idly by. (Anaphoric element - one)
2- lack of independence of the first part is expressed in its incompleteness
... Or in it verbs with the meaning of perception
The prince listened: the bell sounded right under the windows.
3- lack of independence of the second part of the BSP
The anaphoric element moves to the old part.
The brilliance of the lights reached the very bottom of the bay: the water was so transparent.
Without a formal indicator of non-independence of parts:
CAUSE SUGGESTIONS
The second part of such sentences contains the rationale for what is said in the first part. For a long time, apparently, no one approached the well: a curly ant was densely spread around.
SUGGESTIONS OF CLARIFICATION
they report one event but in different ways: the first part contains more general messages, and the second is more specific, complete, detailed.
The century-old effort of the tree did its job: this spruce brought the upper branches to the light. (In place of the colon - namely, that is)
CONSEQUENCE-INCLUSION PROPOSALS
The first part reports some fact, the second one names the real conclusion and the consequence that can be drawn from this fact. At the same time, the modality of the first part is always real, and in the second part there is a special modality of the predicate - possibility, coercion.
Youth is over, a new and difficult path begins. (we place the union of the investigation so) the rooster is old - you need to stab it and eat it.
CONNECTION OFFERS
The second part contains a variety of messages of an additional or evaluative nature about what is said in the first part.
A huge fish hung on the trunk at the back - head and tail almost touched the ground.

COMPLEX OFFERS
= BSP of complicated structure
They are diverse compounds of different types of BS structures.
The Taganrog Bay became shallow: heavy merchant ships were forced to stop on a distant sea roadstead - this was unprofitable.
1 and 2, the design corresponds to the BSP of a homogeneous composition with Enumerative relations of an open structure, partial simultaneity; 1 and 2 + 3 = the composition is heterogeneous, the structure is closed, with explanatory relations, with formal indicators of the lack of independence of the parts - the lack of independence of the second part due to the word this.

37. Basic principles of modern Russian punctuation. Punctuation marks, their types and functions. (3 principles - structural, semantic, intonational) functions - separating, for dashes and brackets and sometimes commas - highlighting.

Punctuation is a system of punctuation marks and the rules for their use to reflect the semantic and intonational-grammatical dissection of speech in writing.

The principles of Russian punctuation are the foundations of modern punctuation rules that determine the optimal use of punctuation marks. The purpose of punctuation marks is to help reflect sounding speech in writing in such a way that it can be understood unambiguously. Signs reflect the semantic and structural articulation of speech, as well as its rhythmic-intonational structure.
Modern language relies on both meaning and structure, and on the rhythmic and intonational articulation of an utterance in their interaction.
Punctuation marks are graphic (written) signs, they are needed in order to divide the text into sentences, to convey in writing the structural features of sentences and their intonation. Punctuation marks are used according to the rules that are necessary for the writer and reader to equally understand the meaning and structure of the text.

The rules of Russian punctuation are based on three principles: logical (semantic), structural-syntactic (formal-grammatical) and intonation.

The rules of Russian punctuation regulate the use of punctuation marks in the vast majority of typified cases of structural, semantic and intonational articulation of speech. This ensures the reliability of communication contacts between the writer and the reader. But sometimes there are cases of punctuation not regulated by the rules. Most often, such digressions are associated with the desire to emphasize certain semantic shades. Such use, however, should be limited, strictly motivated and subject to one goal - to more accurately express the desired information.

Basic Functions of Punctuation Marks

The set of Russian punctuation marks is small: . ! ? , ; … :- () "". The paragraph also acts as a punctuation mark. Some characters are single-functional (all characters except comma and dash), others are multi-functional (comma and dash). One-function subdivided into separating and separating.

Separators are used to separate some segments of text from others. These are single punctuation marks - dot, ! And?, ; ... : and paragraph: It got dark. The fire had not yet been lit in the living room; Leningrad! How will I see him?; A narrow path led through the bushes to a steep slope; fragments of rocks made up the shaky steps of this natural staircase.

With the help of highlighting punctuation marks, used as double ones (brackets and quotation marks), separate segments of speech are distinguished: Finally (and still remember this moment with complacency) a sense of duty triumphed in me over human weakness; A young man in a soldier's overcoat approached. "What are you doing here?" Single commas and dashes act as separating signs, for example, they delimit the predicative parts of a complex sentence: Wild nature always tries to convince a person of his helplessness, but she is powerless to resist the human mind; The day will warm - near the house it smells of late grass. Used as doubles, commas and dashes act as distinguishing characters, for example, they distinguish various kinds of isolated turns. Insertion-introductory constructions: The old linden garden, densely surrounding the sides of the cottage, was drowned in warm darkness.

Along with the function of dismembering the text, punctuation marks can be simultaneously used in a differentiating function: They cut the forest, the chips fly (enumeration), They cut the forest - the chips fly (conditional-investigative dependence), I see snow outside the window (simple sentence) I see - snow outside the window ( unionless joint venture) Grandfather, the grandson has come! - Grandfather came, grandson ....

DIFFERENTIAL FEATURES OF UNION-FREE COMPLEX PROPOSALS OF NON-HOMOGENEOUS COMPOSITION: 1) closed structure; 2) semantic diversity of parts; 3) the possibility of different grammatical design of predicative parts; 4) the use of various types of intonational design of structures.
DIFFERENTIAL FEATURES OF INDIVIDUAL-DIRECT SPEECH: 1) the nature of the ratio of someone else's and author's speech: a) from the point of view of the hero and the author, they are combined; b) a literal transmission of the content of someone else's speech is typical; 2) linguistic features of ways of transmitting improperly direct speech: a) allows you to save all the features of the transmitted speech; b) the presence of the author's introductory words is typical, but not necessary; c) intonation is independent; d) grammatical features: the connection of the parts of the construction is unionless; face shapes are used from the point of view of the author (dependent use); e) quotation marks and dashes are not distinguished (in other cases, punctuation is the same as in direct speech).
DIFFERENTIAL FEATURES OF PARALLEL COMMUNICATION: 1) the main mode of operation of communication mechanisms is repetition; 2) leading means of communication: lexical repetitions, words of one thematic or lexico-semantic group; 3) a sequence with a constant topic or with derived topics.
DIFFERENTIAL FEATURES OF DIRECT SPEECH: 1) the nature of the relationship between someone else's and the author's speech: a) someone else's speech is transmitted from the point of view of the speaker (hero); b) a literal transmission of the content of someone else's speech is typical; 2) linguistic features of direct speech: a) allows you to save all the lexical-phraseological and syntactic features of the transmitted speech; b) the presence of the words of the author is typical, but they may not be; c) intonation is independent; d) grammatical features: the connection between direct speech and the words of the author is unionless; the use of face forms is independent; e) direct speech is highlighted with quotation marks or a dash from a paragraph.
DIFFERENTIAL FEATURES OF A COMPLEX SUBJECT SENTENCE:
1) dependence of the subordinate predicative part on the main one; 2) the presence of a subordinating union or a union word introducing a subordinate clause in NGN; 3) stepping (multi-tiered) of the communicative structure.
DIFFERENTIAL FEATURES OF COMPLEX SUBJECT SENTENCES WITH NON-HOMOGENEOUS (PARALLEL) SUBJECTION: 1) subordinate clauses refer to different words in the main part (dissimilar subordination) or are by-words, adjuncts; 2) there is no coordinative connection between the subordinate parts; 3) the diversity of functionality and diversity of subordinate clauses determine the difference in the means of communication.
DIFFERENTIAL FEATURES OF COMPLEX SUBJECT SENTENCES WITH HOMOGENEOUS SUBJECTION: 1) subordinate clauses spread one word of the main part or its entire composition; 2) subordinate parts can be connected by a coordinative connection; 3) subordinate parts are attached to the main part with the same unions or union
in other words.
DIFFERENTIAL FEATURES OF COMPOUND SENTENCES OF NON-HOMOGENEOUS COMPOSITION: 1) closed structure: the number of predicative parts cannot be increased; 2) inequality of predicative parts in terms of semantics;
3) a wider range of allied means of communication and the use of unions that emphasize the inequality of parts; 4) different design of predicative parts; 5) the use of various intonation types: dividing, adversative, explanatory intonation, intonation characteristic of joining. Formal indicators of the heterogeneity of the composition of the SSP: 1) the impossibility of a common member that simultaneously refers to two predicative parts;
2) the presence in the second predicative part of anaphoric pronouns and pronominal adverbs - indicators of synsemanticity (inferiority) of the part in which they are located;
3) the use in the second predicative part of adverbs and particles with the meaning of consequence, concession, restriction, compensation - concretizers of a particular syntactic meaning, emphasizing the inequality of one of the parts of a compound sentence.
DIFFERENTIAL FEATURES OF COMPOUND SENTENCES OF HOMOGENEOUS COMPOSITION: 1) structure openness: a series consisting of two parts can be continued up to three or more; 2) semantic and grammatical equality of parts; 3) the use of connecting, divisive unions, the opposing union a (in rare cases) as the main means of communication; 4) the same design of each predicative part: a common modal plan, the unity of functional types; 5) enumerative intonation, characterized by the uniformity of the rhythmic-melodic pattern. The following indicators testify to the homogeneity of the SSP composition: 1) the presence or possibility of a common secondary member or a common predicative part; 2) the presence of a common sentence for both predicative parts in the previous or subsequent context, with which they are equally correlated; 3) the presence of a general assessment or a general picture that determines the thematic similarity of the parts or their associative convergence.
DIFFERENTIAL FEATURES OF THE METHODS OF TRANSMISSION OF INDIRECT SPEECH: 1) the nature of the relationship between someone else's and the author's speech: a) someone else's speech is transmitted from the point of view of the author; b) the transfer of the main content of someone else's speech is typical; 2) linguistic features of someone else's speech: a) does not allow you to save all the features of the transmitted speech; b) the presence of the author's introductory words is mandatory; c) the intonation of indirect speech sentences is dependent; d) grammatical signs: connection with the help of unions or allied words, because indirect speech is transmitted by a subordinate clause; face shapes are used from the point of view of the author (dependent use); e) indirect speech is not marked with quotation marks.
DIFFERENTIAL FEATURES OF CHAIN ​​COMMUNICATION: 1) the main mode of action of communication mechanisms is engagement; 2) means of communication: a) anaphoric substitutions (pronominal words); b) synsemantic elements (conjunctions, adverbs, words of broad semantics referring to previous sentences); 3) a simple linear thematic sequence, when the rheme of the previous sentence becomes the theme of the next one, or combinations based on such a sequence.
DIFFERENTIAL SEMES IN THE SYNONYMIC PARADIGMA: 1) meaningful semes; 2) semes characterizing the stylistic affiliation of the synonym; 3) stylistic connotative semes.
DIFFERENTIAL SIGN [lat. differentia difference]. A sign used to distinguish between sound units, for example, phonemes (a sign of deafness / voicedness is used to distinguish phonemes "p - b, t - d, k - d".)
GRAMMATIC DIFFERENTIATION. The dissimilarity of forms, which is one of the main internal factors in the development of the language.
LANGUAGE DIFFERENTIATION. The process of the emergence of language variants of a language, its varieties, forms of existence, functional styles as a result of its variation, depending on social and territorial conditions: 1) territorially determined differentiation at the level of phonetics, vocabulary, syntax underlies adverbs, dialects, dialects; 2) socially conditioned D. Ya. underlies social dialects; 3) differentiation by social gender is manifested in the presence of gender varieties of language and speech; 4) functionally stylistic D. Ya. associated with the use of language in various situations of communication, spheres of human activity with a focus on different communicative goals.
DIFFERENTIATION.1 1. Distinguishing adjacent sounds in order to distinguish between homonyms. 2. Semantic and stylistic stratification of vocabulary. 3. Formation of various related languages ​​and dialects based on the parent language.
DIFFERENTIATION2 (lat. differentia distinction]. Separation, dismemberment, division of the whole into diverse forms and steps.
DIFFERENTIATED SIGNS OF UNION-FREE COMPLEX PROPOSALS OF HOMOGENEOUS COMPOSITION: 1) structure openness; 2) semantic and grammatical equality of parts; 3) semantic correlation of lexical units in parts of a complex sentence; 4) the same grammatical structure of the predicative parts, the commonality of temporal and modal plans; 5) enumerative intonation.
DIFFUSION. The process of mutual borrowing of words, pronunciation or grammatical forms that develops between related languages ​​during direct communication in situations of frequent contact of native speakers.
DICHOTOMY. The logical operation of dividing the scope of a concept, which consists in dividing a concept into two contradictory species concepts, one of which is a negation of the features of the other: a species is perfect and imperfect, a number is singular and plural.
SOUND DURATION. Its duration in time. It is measured in thousandths of a second - milliseconds (ms). In Russian, stressed vowels are longer than unstressed ones.
DIARY AS A GENRE OF SPEECH COMMUNICATION represents texts of addressed colloquial speech. Diary texts are conditioned by a multifactorial pragmatic space. The addressee of the texts is an alter ego, a supersubject that helps the writer express thoughts, feelings, doubts. This pragmatic factor forces the author of diary entries to verify the accuracy of the expression of thoughts, to introduce synonyms-concretizers, to use various syntactic devices: gradation, question-answer moves, rhetorical questions; introductory words and sentences, which are signals of the author's reflection.
DOBROVSKII YOSEF (08/17/1753 - 01/06/1829). Czech educator, one of the founders of Slavic studies, figures of the Czech Renaissance. He studied at the philosophical, then at the theological faculty of Charles University in Prague. From 1784 he was a member of the Royal Society of Sciences in Prague. Honorary member of the Russian Academy (1820). He laid the foundations for the comparative study of Slavic languages, Slavic culture and history. He pioneered the periodization of Czech literature and language. He carried out a scientific description of the grammatical structure of the Czech language, using the language of the 16th century as the basis of the contemporary literary language, which contributed to the preservation of numerous archaisms in the Czech language and at the same time revealed its riches. In his works, he relied on the determination of the degree of kinship of the Slavic languages ​​and the recognition of the antiquity of the Old Slavonic language. "Fundamentals of the Old Slavonic Language" (1822) - the first scientific grammar of the Old Slavonic language. He researched the origin of the Slavic script and
the first written language of the Slavs ("Glagolitika", 1807; "Moravian legends about Cyril and
Methodius", 1826).
REPORT AS A GENRE OF SCIENTIFIC SUB-STYLE includes a report on the main results of the study, accompanied by a description of the relevance of the topic under study, the purpose of the study, the hypothesis, and the objectives of the study. The report may characterize the research methods used by the author, the material, substantiate the theoretical and practical significance. The perspective of the topic under study is determined.
REPORT. One of the types of creative works of students in language, literature and other academic subjects. The report is created according to the following scheme: 1. The topic of the study is called; 2. It is said about what material was studied, what was collected on this topic; 3. The results of the study are reported.
REPORT NOTE. Genre of official business style, information and reference document reporting on the situation, c.-l. fact about the work done. The addressee is the head of the department or institution. The information of the note is taken into account or prompts to action. The genre form is based on two actions: 1) reporting negative facts; 2) presentation of conclusions and proposals. The text of the note is preceded by a heading beginning with the preposition o. For example: About scientific work at the department. The text of the note is signed by the compiler indicating the position, initials and surname.
DOCUMENT in rhetoric: a type of literature that underlies any public argument, containing the most objective and truthful data about the facts.
DOCUMENTS OF THE SPHERE OF MANAGEMENT: 1) directive and information-instructive: laws, decrees, resolutions, by-laws, guidelines, instructions of higher authorities; 2) internal administrative documents: charters, orders, orders, constituent agreements, decisions, memoranda and explanatory notes, certificates, letters, faxes, etc.; 3) personnel documents regulating labor relations: orders for admission, dismissal, transfer, etc., statements, characteristics, time sheets and schedules, work books, personal records, personal files; 4) financial and accounting documents, with the help of which accounting and reporting are kept: they reflect the operations of the enterprise: costs, expenses, income, profit, settlements with suppliers, customers, budget; balance sheets, various acts, accounts, business plans, statements, payment orders, account books, etc.
LONGITUDE. One of the main properties of sound, opposed to brevity. Long and short vowels were in ancient Greek and Latin. On the ratio of long and short syllables, poetic meters were created (hexameter, dactyl, pyrrhic, etc.). Long and short vowels occur in Russian speech under different phonetic conditions: unstressed vowels are shorter than stressed vowels. The vowel system of many languages ​​distinguishes vowel length, forming pairs of vowels according to duration: long and short vowels are found, in particular, in Finnish, Czech, and Yakut.
DOMINANT IN SYNONYMIC PHRASEOLOGICAL SERIES. The sign, the widest in terms of semantic volume, has a neutral color. Traditionally, in phraseology, the word usually represents the dominant, since the phraseological unit is an indirectly nominative sign, which is characterized by evaluation, expression, emotionality, and figurativeness. For example: a lot (dominant): no number, no count, no count, more than enough, even a dime a dozen, that the sand of the sea has no number, etc.
DOMINANT OF REGULATION. The predominance of the means of regulativeness in the text
type.
DOMINANT OF THE SYNONYMIC SERIES. The main word in the synonymic series, stylistically neutral and the most general member of the synonymic series. Eyes - dominant, eyes, peepers, burkaly, balls - members of the synonymous series.
DOMINANT. The word included in the synonymic paradigm, which has the most voluminous and neutral content, which determines the general interpretation of the synonymous dictionary entry: GO. Move, pass, move, etc. Go is dominant.
DOMINANT SPHERES OF COMMUNICATION (DOMINANT COMMUNICATION SPHERES). Regulated areas of communication, the use of the language in which is financially and legally supported at the state level: 1) the field of education and science; 2) the sphere of mass communication.
DOMINANT LANGUAGE. The language used with the maximum functional load in most areas of communication, unlike other languages ​​that are part of a particular socio-communicative system in a state or territorial entity. Usually the most developed functional language dominates, having the largest socio-demographic base, used in socially significant areas: 1) professional activity; 2) education; 3) social activities, etc. In large communities, languages ​​that are not dominant on the territory of the entire state can play a dominant role: 1) in some. administrative education; 2) in certain communicative spheres: in intra-family and friendly communication, in the field of art.
DONAT ELIUS, 4th century, Roman grammarian. He created the Latin textbook "The Art of Grammar" ("Ars grammatica"). For the initial stage of education, he wrote: "Small grammar" ("Ars minor"), for a higher level of education - "Big grammar" ("Ars major"). Both textbooks called "Donat" were popular in the Middle Ages in Western Europe. There were numerous manuscripts that served as a manual for learning the Latin language. From the 15th century Donat's printed textbooks were used.
APPENDIX (syntax). An adverbial secondary member of a sentence with subject-object semantics, which is represented by indirect-case and prepositional-case forms of a noun. It explains the semantics of the dominant word - a verb or a verbal noun. The semantics of the complement is varied: 1) direct object: He saw a clear sky;, 2) indirect object: There were traces of birds in the snow; 3) the object of speech-thought: Let's agree on a trip; 4) addressee: He helped a friend: 5) weapon object: It was cold, and I covered myself with a fur coat.
ADDITION INDIRECT. A kind of morphologized object, which can be represented by the form of any indirect case of a noun with or without a preposition, as well as an accusative case with a preposition. The choice of forms depends on: 1) the semantics of the verb; 2) its word-formation structure. Verbs in a sentence: a) may require certain forms of addition: He touched the book; b) allow variation of forms: He went to the house or behind the house; c) used without addition: He laughed. Private values ​​D.k. are determined by: a) case forms; b) prepositions; c) the semantics of the explained verbs. The most significant particular meanings are singled out: a) an object as a point of application of an action: He peered into the darkness; b) the addressee of the action (dative case): He quickly answered him; c) instruments of action (active case): He covered himself with a blanket. Appropriate additions have similar meanings: write to a brother - a letter to a brother. Substantive additions contain shades of attributive meaning, so they can be qualified not as additions, but as inconsistent definitions.
ADDITION DIRECT. A kind of morphologized object used with transitive verbs and denoting the subject to which the action is directly directed and which is completely covered by the action. D.p. is expressed: 1) accusative case without preposition: He saw his sister yesterday; 2) in case of negation - in the genitive case: He did not see his sister yesterday. Without an addition, the verb does not realize its meaning and cannot be used without it: He saw yesterday - it is not used without an addition.
MORPHOLOGIZED ADDITIONS. Additions represented by oblique cases of nouns and substantiated words: Grass bent down to the ground. D.m. differ in: 1) meaning; 2) form; 3) the degree of dependence on the explained word. In this regard, it is customary to divide additions into: 1) direct and 2) indirect.
ADDITIONS NON-MORPHOLOGIZED. Additions represented by the infinitive, which is not subject to substantiation: He always taught them to understand the beautiful. The infinitive expresses object relations; it replaces the name required by the main word: a verb or a name (teaches to understand). D.Sc. are considered unproductive in Russian studies.
ADDITIONAL VERBS. Additions subordinated to a verb of any form, as well as verbal phraseology and descriptive verb-nominal turnover: There was an intoxicating smell of cherry blossoms.
ADDITIONS APPLICABLE. Additions subordinated to: a) verbal noun (substantive); b) qualitative adjectives (adjectives). For example: Walking through the torment seemed endless; The voice, full of joy, seemed to tremble.
ADDITIONAL MEANS OF COMMUNICATION IN A COMPLEX OFFER. Means, which include structural features of predicative parts, due to the need for their connection with other parts: 1) a complex sentence paradigm, including about 49 members, reflecting the ratio of aspectual-temporal forms and modal plans of predicates;
2) anaphoric and cataphoric pronouns, indicating the incompleteness of one of the parts and its close connection with the other: anaphoric pronouns refer to the previous predicative part, cataphoric - to the next; 3) structural incompleteness
one of the predicative parts, the presence of unsubstituted syntactic positions in it: He is in
hall; further - no one (A. Pushkin); 4) grammaticalized lexemes: enough, not
enough, too; 5) semantic correlation of lexical content
predicative parts; 6) loose / fixed (fixed) order of predicative parts.
ADDITIONAL MEANS OF COMMUNICATION IN A COMPOUND SENTENCE. Private syntactic meanings, which are determined by the lexical content of the predicative parts: 1) syntactic specialized elements-specifiers of the syntactic meanings of the consequence, result, following, concession, compensation, restriction, etc.; 2) anaphoric pronouns and pronominal adverbs in the second predicative part; 3) repetitions (lexical, synonymous, derivational), the use of antonyms and words of the same thematic or lexico-semantic group; 4) common components: minor part; 5) the ratio of aspectual-temporal forms of predicates; 6) the ratio of modal plans of predicates; 7) parallelism in the structure of predicative parts: the guest looked at him, and he looked at the guest; 8) incompleteness of one of the predicative parts; 9) the order of predicative parts, the possibility / impossibility of changing which is associated with the expression of certain syntactic meanings.
ADDITIONAL LANGUAGE. A language used alongside a dominant language in a social communication system. Being one of the components of such a system, it remains a minority language (the language of the minority), less developed, used in the smallest number of areas of communication.
ASSUMPTIONS USED IN THE STUDY OF THE SEMANTIC STRUCTURE OF THE TEXT: 1) the deep meaning of the text is structurally organized. The semantic macrostructure of a text consists of the semantic microstructures of individual utterances. The micro- and macrostructure of the text are determined by its general target program. 2) The microstructures of the text represent the surface meaning of the corresponding fragments of the text. Every local interpretation is relative. It needs further confirmation. Superficial meaning, being connected with deep meaning, creates the basis for global interpretation. 3. The addressee factor determines the special nature of the signals used by the author. At the same time, in the informative-pragmatic aspect, the role of lexical means is great. Being a sign, the word has semantics, syntactics, pragmatics. 4. As an element of the statement, the word serves as a signal of the corresponding "segment", "fragment" of the situation. 5. Information signals of the elements of the embodied situation, verbally encoded in the text, have the status of semantic features of the corresponding elements. A block of statements united functionally and in meaning, and a whole text reflecting a number of correlative situations, episodes or a whole event, are characterized by the interaction of associative-semantic complexes of different rank and scale. 6. Verbally expressed semantic signs of various realities of the artistic world are connected by relations of addition, amplification, contrast. The dialogue with the text includes the formation of ideas adequate to the text about its meaning, about its pragmatics - the nature of the emotional and evaluative impact on the addressee.
DORSAL ARTICULATION. Articulation of front-lingual consonants with a lowered (passive) tip of the tongue and the convergence of the front of the tongue with the upper teeth (in Russian and French).
ACCESSIBILITY OF SPEECH. A communicative quality based on a linguistic structure that makes it easier for the recipient to recognize the expressed information.
AVAILABILITY. A cognitive concept that characterizes the informative properties of individual components of a sentence or discourse and indicates the importance of access to topics and thematic elements of an utterance. (Kubryakova et al., p.27).
ANCIENT WRITTEN LANGUAGE. A language with long written traditions, which received a written language adapted to the structure of the given language, which functioned in written form for a number of centuries, has a body of written texts, including a fairly extensive fund of written monuments.
ANCIENT RUSSIA. A word from the Old Russian language that has survived to this day and is used in the modern Russian literary language.
OLD RUSSISMS. The lexical layer, which includes words that are the successors of East Slavicisms, leading to the beginning of the 9th-14th centuries. They belong to the period of Ancient Russia.
DUALINGVISM. A phenomenon that occurs when bilinguals with a passive type of bilingualism communicate, when each of the communicants speaks his native language, understanding the interlocutor's speech, but the level of communicative competence does not allow them to synthesize texts in the interlocutor's language.
DUBITATIV. An inclination expressing epistemic impossibility, or doubt.
DUBITATION. A series of questions to an imaginary interlocutor in a scientific, journalistic style, serving to pose a problem and justify the form of reasoning.
DUPLICATIVE FUNCTION OF LANGUAGE. parallel function.
DURATIV. An aspect indicator of the internal stages, marking the middle stage. Durative can mark the middle phase of states and processes. Durative indicators can combine the expression of the middle phase with the expression of unlimited repeatability and habituality. Such polysemic indicators are called imperfective. Imperfective indicators are attached both to the names of long-term situations and to the names of instantaneous (i.e., events). Wed: push - push.
SPIRITUAL LITERATURE in rhetoric: a type of literature, including texts of the Holy Scriptures and other canonical works, theological and preaching writings.

1. UNION-FREE COMPOUND PROPOSITION

General information

A non-union complex sentence is a complex sentence, the predicative parts of which are interconnected in meaning and structure, and are also connected without the help of conjunctions or relative words by rhythmic melodic means, the order of the parts. Differ:

1) non-union complex sentences of homogeneous composition (with parts of the same type). According to the meanings they express (simultaneity or sequence of events, comparison or opposition of actions, etc.) and according to some structural features (enumerative intonation or intonation of opposition, the same type of aspect-temporal forms of verbs-predicates, the possibility of inserting coordinating conjunctions), sentences of this type can be correlated with compound sentences; compare:

The forest lawn is all saturated with cold dew, insects are sleeping. many flowers have not yet opened their corollas (Prishv.). - Not wounds, not a sick lung tormented him - the consciousness of uselessness irritated him (Pavl.);

2) non-union complex sentences of heterogeneous composition (with different types of parts). According to the meanings they express (relations of conditionality, causal, explanatory, etc.) and according to some structural features (intonation, the order of the predicative parts of a single whole, the lexical composition of the first part, etc.), sentences of this type can be correlated with complex sentences; cf .: I am sad: there is no friend with me (P.). - Suddenly I feel: someone takes my hand and pushes me (T.).

Types of non-union complex sentences

Depending on the meanings of the parts of non-union complex sentences and the type of intonation as the most important formal side of their construction, various types of non-union complex sentences are distinguished:

1) non-union complex sentences with the meaning of "enumeration: The snowstorm did not subside, the sky did not clear up (P.); Doors and windows are wide open, a leaf does not stir in the garden (Gonch.);

2) non-union complex sentences with the meaning of comparison or opposition: Measure seven times - cut one (Poel.); It was not only grief - it was a complete change of life, of the whole future (Sim.);

3) non-union complex sentences with the meaning of conditionality: And if you kill, you will get nothing (L. T.); If you like to ride - love to carry sleds (Eat.). (About non-union sentences like And if it weren’t for me, you would smoke in
Tver, in which conditional-investigative relations are expressed by the presence in the first part of the predicate in the form of an imperative mood;

4) non-union complex sentences with the meaning of explanatory relations: With anxiety, I jumped out of the wagon and see: mother meets me on the porch with a look of deep chagrin (P.); I will definitely tell you: you have a talent (Fad.); Fedor understood: it was about communication (Furm.); Alexey decided: enough to pull (B. Paul.). In these examples, the second part denotes an object related to the predicate in the first part, expressed by the verb of speech, thought, perception, etc. The second part can also perform the function of the subject in relation to the first part: So decided: I will not show fear ... ( P.); It occurred to me: why is my mother sleeping so soundly?
(Dost.). This type of non-union complex sentences can also include those in which, in the first part, the verbs are torn to look out, look around, listen, etc. or an expression like raise your eyes, raise your head, etc., warning of further presentation; in these cases, between the parts of the unionless southern sentence, you can insert the words and saw that; and heard that; and felt that: I turn around: Grushnitsky (L.); Oblomov looked around, in front of him in reality, not in a hallucination, stood the real, real Stolz (Gonch.); He thought, sniffed: it smells of honey (Ch.);

5) non-union complex sentences with the meaning of definitive relations: Like all Moscow ones, your father is like this: he would like a son-in-law with stars and ranks ... (Gr.); Through a dream, a relentless thought began to disturb: they would rob the shop, drive the horses (Bun.);

6) non-union complex sentences with the meaning of causal relationships: I could not go out: a boy with white eyes was spinning in front of me in the darkness (L.); Sometimes the horses fell through the belly: the soil was very viscous (Fad.); The rich man cannot sleep: the rich thief is afraid (Last);

7) non-union complex sentences with the meaning of temporary relations:
We will win, you will build a stone house (A. N. T.); I was driving here, the rye began to turn yellow.
Now I'm leaving back - people eat this rye (Prishv.); They plow arable land - they don’t wave their hands (Last);

8) non-union complex sentences with the meaning of comparison: The word-nightingale sings (L.); ... Look, give a ruble (N.);

9) non-union complex sentences with the meaning of a consequence, a result, a quick change of events: ... The cheese fell out - there was such a cheat with it (Kr.); I
I'm dying - I have nothing to lie (T.); Suddenly, men with axes appeared - the forest rang, groaned, crackled (N.), The snowstorm was already very close to the fire - suddenly horse rye was heard in the darkness (Fad.);

10) non-union complex sentences with the meaning of an explanation; From early youth, Tatyana was kept in a black body: she worked for two, but she never saw any kindness (T.); Everyone regarded Nagulnov’s behavior differently: some encouraged, others blamed, some kept quiet
(Shol.);

11) non-union complex sentences with the meaning of attachment: I already know all this by heart - that's what's boring (L.); She was sitting nearby on a bench under a rickety wooden mushroom, such as they do in camps for sentries (Paust.); He always liked to chat - I knew that very well.
(Kav.);

12) non-union proposals of complex composition. In these sentences, the second part consists of not one, but several simple sentences:
He noticed some special dilapidation on all the village buildings: the log on the huts was dark and old; many roofs blew through like a sieve; on others, only a ridge was left at the top and poles on the sides in the form of ribs (G.);
It is pleasant, after a long walk and a deep sleep, to lie motionless on the hay: the body basks and languishes, the face glows with a slight heat, sweet laziness closes its eyes.
(T.).

2. Ways of transmitting someone else's speech.

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

General information

The author's narrative may include the speech of another person or the statements and thoughts of the author himself, expressed in a certain situation and transmitted verbatim or by content. The statement of other persons (less often, the author himself), included in the author's narration, forms someone else's speech. Whichever. how such a statement is transmitted, direct speech and indirect speech are distinguished.

The main criterion for distinguishing between direct and indirect speech is, first of all, that the first, as a rule, literally conveys someone else's statement, preserving its lexical and phraseological composition, grammatical structure and stylistic features, while the second usually reproduces only the content of the statement, and the original words and expressions speaker, the nature of the construction of his speech change under the influence of the author's context.

From the syntactic point of view, direct speech retains considerable independence, being connected with the author's words only in meaning and intonation, and indirect speech acts as a subordinate clause in a complex sentence in which the author's words play the role of the main sentence. These are the most important differences between the two ways of transmitting someone else's speech. However, their clear distinction in a number of cases gives way to their rapprochement, close interaction and crossing.

So, direct speech may not literally convey someone else's statement.
We sometimes find an indication of this in the author's own words: He said something like this ...; He answered approximately the following ... etc. It is clear that in such cases, someone else's speech is reproduced with a greater or lesser approximation to accuracy, but not verbatim.

Naturally, we find not a literal transmission, but an exact translation in cases where the speaker speaks in a foreign language, and his direct speech is transmitted in Russian: - What? What are you talking about?
- said Napoleon. - Yes, tell me to give me a horse (L.T.).

On the other hand, indirect speech can literally convey other people's words, for example, in an indirect question corresponding to an interrogative sentence in direct speech; cf .: He asked when the meeting will begin. - He asked: “When will the meeting begin?”

Sometimes indirect speech differs lexically from direct speech only in the presence of a function word - a union that subordinates the subordinate clause to the main one; cf.; He said that the manuscript has already been edited. - He said: "The manuscript has already been edited"; He asked if everyone was ready to leave. He asked, "Are you all ready to leave?"

The convergence of direct and indirect speech is possible not only from the side of their lexical composition, but also from the side of the syntactic structure, the construction of speech, which in common speech reaches the mixing of both forms of transmitting someone else's statement (the so-called semi-direct speech); Of course, the postmaster and the chairman, and even the police chief himself, as usual, joked with our hero that he was not in love and that we know, they say, that Pavel
Ivanovich's heart is limping, we know who shot him ... (G.).

The same mixed construction is formed in cases where there is no subordinating conjunction, with which indirect speech as a subordinate clause should have been attached to the author's] words:
They objected to him, justifying himself, but he persistently repeated his own: no one is to blame for anything before him, and everyone is to blame for himself (M. G.)
The absence of a union brings such sentences closer to direct speech, and pronouns indicate indirect speech.

Direct speech

Direct speech is a transmission of someone else's statement, accompanied by the author's words. The latter, first of all, establish the very fact of someone else's speech, explain to whom it belongs, while they can indicate under what conditions it was said, to whom it was addressed, evaluate it, etc.:

"Hush, children, hush!" - Levin even shouted angrily at the children, standing in front of his wife to protect her, when a crowd of children scattered towards them with a squeal of joy (L.T.).

In the absence of author's words, one can talk about someone else's speech, but not about direct speech: Everyone took their places. “I open the meeting, comrade!” Silence settled in the hall. In such a narrative, the author's text characterizes the situation, but does not introduce direct speech.

In relation to the author's words, direct speech acts as an independent sentence, in meaning and intonationally connected with the author's context, together with which it forms one whole, resembling an unassociated complex sentence. In some cases, the connection between direct speech and the author's words is closer and direct speech resembles a member of the sentence formed by the author's words: We heard: "Help!"
(author's words do not have semantic completeness, and an addition is expected with a transitive verb; cf .: We heard a call for help); In the silence came:
"Follow me! Attack!" (the author's words are perceived as an incomplete sentence, in which the subject is necessary; cf .: In the silence there was a call to attack); He asked: "Give this book to the library" (cf.: He asked to give this book to the library - an inconsistent definition with an object meaning). However, it should be borne in mind that direct speech is a sentence, therefore, drawing an analogy between it and a sentence member, one cannot talk about the identity of these constructions.

In other cases, the analogy with subordinate clauses is closer. These are the constructions in which direct speech is connected with verbs of speech: he said ..., he asked ..., he answered ..., he objected ... etc. When direct speech is replaced with indirect speech, a subordinate clause is formed, not a member of the sentence.
From this, however, it does not follow that the combination of author's words with direct speech forms a complex sentence: this is a special construction consisting of two independent sentences. As for such cases as the remark of Osip, who is transmitting Khlestakov’s speech of the innkeeper: “You are de with the master, he says, scammers, and your master is a rogue” (G.) - then there is no merging into one sentence of direct speech and author’s words, so how the word speaks in such cases acts as an introductory one, indicating the source of the message.

Direct speech can convey:

1) the statement of another person, i.e. literally someone else's words:
“Iran, you are crying again,” Litvinov (T.) began with concern;

2) the words of the speaker himself, uttered by him earlier: “Why aren’t you going?” - I asked the driver impatiently (P.);

3) unexpressed thoughts: “How good,“ I hid the revolver in the crow’s nest, ”thought Pavel (N. Ostr.).

1) precede direct speech: Overjoyed, the mother confidently answered:
"I'll find something to say!" (M. G.);

2) follow direct speech: “I will, I will fly!” - rang and went in Alexey's head, driving away sleep (B. Paul);

3) be included in direct speech: “We will have to spend the night here,” said
Maksim Maksimych, - you won’t move through the mountains in such a snowstorm ”(L.);

4) include direct speech: To my question: “Is the old caretaker alive?” - no one could give me a satisfactory answer (P.).

Direct speech is most often associated with verbs of utterance or thought that are part of the author's words (speak, say, ask, answer, exclaim, say, object, think, decide, etc.), less often with verbs indicating the nature of speech, on its connection with the previous statement (continue, add, conclude, finish, complete, interrupt, interrupt, etc.), with verbs expressing the purpose of the speech (ask, order, explain, confirm, complain, agree, etc.), as well as with phrases with nouns that are close in meaning or formation to verbs of speech (he asked a question, an answer was heard, exclamations were heard, words were heard, a whisper was heard, a cry was heard, a voice was heard, etc.), or with nouns indicating the emergence of a thought
(a thought was born, flashed in the mind, appeared in the mind, etc.). Author's words may contain verbs that indicate the action that accompanies the statement; verbs denoting movements, gestures, facial expressions
(run, jump up, shake your head, shrug your shoulders, shrug, make a grimace, etc.), expressing the feelings, sensations, internal state of the speaker (rejoice, upset, offended, indignant, surprised, laugh, smile, sigh, etc.). P.).

The word order in direct speech does not depend on its place in relation to the author's words, and the word order in the author's remark is related to the place it occupies in relation to direct speech. namely:

1) if the author's words precede direct speech, then they usually have a direct order of the main members of the sentence (the subject precedes the predicate); Zhukhrai flocked to the platform of the training machine gun and, raising his hand, said: “Comrades, we have gathered you for a serious and responsible business” (N. Ostr.);

2) if the author's words come after direct speech or are included in it, then the order of the main members of the sentence in them is reversed (the predicate precedes the subject): “Fire! Fire / "- there was a desperate cry from below
(Ch.); “Collect, brothers, material for the fire,” I said, picking up some block of wood from the road. “We’ll have to spend the night in the steppe” (M. G.).

Indirect speech

Indirect speech is the transmission of someone else's speech in the form of a subordinate clause: Gurov told. that he is a Muscovite, a philologist by training, but works in a bank; once prepared to sing in a private opera, but gave up, has in
Moscow has two houses (Ch.).

A subordinate clause containing indirect speech follows the main one and joins the predicate of the latter with the help of conjunctions and relative words characteristic of explanatory clauses: what, to, as if, as if, who, what, which, which. whose how. where, where, from where, why, why, etc.

Union which indicates the transmission of a real fact and is used when replacing a declarative sentence of direct speech: They said that the Kuban was preparing an uprising against the Volunteer Army ... (Shol.)

Unions seem and seem to give indirect speech a shade of uncertainty, doubts about the truth of the transmitted content: ... Some said that he was the unfortunate son of wealthy parents ... (L.T.).

The union to is used when replacing an incentive sentence in direct speech: ... Tell the groom not to give oats to his horses (G.). Also in some cases, with a negative predicate of the main sentence: No one could say that he had ever seen him at some evening (G.).

Relative words who, what, what, food, where, etc. are used when replacing an interrogative sentence of direct speech, i.e., interrogative pronominal words are preserved as interrogative-relative ones: Korchagin repeatedly asked me when he could check out (N. Ostr. ). Such a subordinate clause is called an indirect question. An indirect question is expressed with the help of a particle-union whether, if the question in direct speech was expressed without pronominal words: Mother asked a worker who worked in the field, how far was it to the tar plant (M. G.).

In indirect speech, personal and possessive pronouns and persons of the verb are used from the point of view of the author (i.e., the person transmitting indirect speech), and not the person who owns direct speech. Appeals, interjections, emotional particles that are present in direct speech are omitted in indirect speech; the meanings they express and the expressive coloring of speech are transmitted only approximately by other lexical means.

The introduction of modal particles into indirect speech, they say, de, they say, etc., allows us to preserve some shades of direct speech in it: The servant ... reported to his master that, they say, Andrei Gavrilovich did not obey and did not want to return (P).

Sometimes verbatim expressions of someone else's speech are preserved in indirect speech (in a letter this is shown with the help of quotation marks): From Petrushka they heard only the smell of residential peace, and from Selifan that "he performed the state service, but he had previously served at customs", and nothing more (G. ).

Improper direct speech

Someone else's speech can also be expressed by a special technique of the so-called improperly direct speech. Its essence lies in the fact that it preserves to one degree or another the lexical and syntactic features of someone else's statement, the manner of speech of the speaking person, the emotional coloring characteristic of direct speech, but it is transmitted not on behalf of the character, but on behalf of the author, narrator. The author in this case expresses the thoughts and feelings of his hero, merges his speech with his speech. As a result, a two-dimensional statement is created: the “inner” speech of the character, his thoughts, moods are conveyed (and in this sense he “speaks”), but the author speaks for him.

With indirect speech, the indirect speech is brought together by the fact that the faces of the verb and pronouns are also replaced in it, it can take the form of a subordinate clause.

The difference between direct, indirect and improperly direct speech is shown by the following comparison:

2) indirect speech: Everyone recalled this evening, repeating that they had a good time, I had fun;

3) improperly direct speech: Everyone remembered that evening How good and fun it was for them!

From the point of view of syntactic, improperly spicy speech acts:

1) as part of a complex sentence: The fact that Lyubka remained in the city was especially pleasant. Seryozha Lyubka was a desperate girl, her own on the board
(Fed.),

2) as an independent, independent proposal:

When the grandmother died, they put her in a long, narrow coffin and covered her eyes with two nickels, which did not want to close. Before her death, she was alive and wore soft bagels sprinkled with poppy seeds from the market, but now she sleeps, sleeps ... (Ch).

The most characteristic type of improperly direct speech is the form of interrogative and exclamatory sentences that stand out emotionally and intonation against the background of the author's narrative:

She could not but confess that he liked her very much; probably, and he, with his mind and experience, could already notice that she distinguished him: how did she still not see him at her feet and still not hear his confession? What kept him? Timidity .. pride or coquetry of cunning red tape? It was a mystery to her (P.); Nikolai Rostov turned away and, as if looking for something, began to look at the distance, at the water.
Danube, to the sky, to the sun. How beautiful the sky looked, how blue, calm and deep! How gently and glossy the water shone in the distant Danube! (T)

The interaction of separate ways of transmitting someone else's speech allows, for stylistic purposes, to combine them in one text: He [the provincial] is angrily silent in such comparisons, and sometimes he dares to say. that such-and-such a cloth or such-and-such a wine can be obtained from them both better and cheaper, and what about overseas rarities. these big crayfish and shells, and red fish, they won’t even look there, and that it’s free, they say, for you to buy various fabrics and trinkets from foreigners. they rip you off and you are happy to be boobies
(hound)

Literature

1. Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A. Modern Russian language: Textbook. - M .: International relations, 1995. - 560 p.