Western Europe 16th-17th century European countries in the XVI-XVIII centuries

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Changes in Europe in the 16th - 17th centuries:

1) The foundations of the capitalist mode of production have been laid. Manufactories are being built. free capital and hired workers appeared.

2) The great geographical discoveries brought fabulous income to Europe. The development of international trade strengthened the economy.

3) The need for a new foreign policy (colonial expansion). Strengthened the central government, Europe is established absolutism(a form of government in which the monarch has unlimited power).

4) The first bourgeois revolutions take place, which will lead to the fall of the autocracy, the first bourgeois republics are established in which human rights and freedoms are respected.

5) The influence of the church is weakened, so there is a rapid development of education, sciences, philosophy, art and literature.

Modernization- this is the renewal of the means of production in connection with technical progress, the emergence of new technologies, machine tools and mechanisms.

Renaissance(Renaissance) - this is the era of European culture, when the culture of the Middle Ages is replaced by the culture of the new time. There is a revival of interest in antiquity, palace architecture, happy holidays, etc., starting from the 15th century.

Reformation(in translation - transformation) is a mass religious movement in Europe aimed at the transformation of Catholic Christianity.

Ideologists - Martin Luther (1483-1546) and John Calvin (1509 - 1564).

They opposed the mediating role of the church between God and man, against church taxes and monastic land ownership. As a result of the reformation, a new trend in the Christian church will appear - Protestantism, which is established as the state religion in most European countries: Germany, England, France and Navarre (the Huguenot movement), Switzerland, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, etc.

Question 2. Transition from traditional to industrial society in Europe 16-17 centuries.

Western Europe is the first civilization in which the first bourgeois relations were born, gained strength and triumphed, i.e. there was a formational shift - from feudalism to capitalism (and if we use the civilizational approach - the transition from a traditional society to an industrial one). They first appeared in the major trading cities of Italy at the end of the 14th century. In the XV-XVI centuries. spread in many countries of Western Europe: in Germany, France, England, Spain and Portugal. Over time, this process has covered most of the world.

1) traditional society characterized by the dominance of rural subsistence farming and primitive crafts. In such societies, an extensive development path and manual labor predominate. The property belongs to the community or the state. Private property is neither sacred nor inviolable. The social structure of a traditional society is corporate by class, stable and immovable. Social mobility is virtually non-existent. Human behavior in society is regulated by customs, beliefs, unwritten laws. The political sphere is dominated by the church and the army. The person is completely alienated from politics. Power seems to him of greater value than law and law. The spiritual sphere of human existence has priority over the economic one.

2) B industrial society the base is the industry based on machine technology, the intensive way of development prevails. Stable economic growth is accompanied by an increase in real per capita income. Social mobility is significant in the social sphere. The number of the peasantry is sharply reduced, urbanization is taking place. New classes appear - the industrial proletariat and the bourgeoisie. A person is characterized by signs of individualism and rationalism. There is a secularization of consciousness. In the political sphere, the role of the state is growing, and a democratic regime is gradually taking shape. Law and law prevail in society.

Signs of feudalism:

natural economy, manual labor;
the presence of two classes - feudal lords and dependent peasants;
the feudal lords own the means of production, the peasants have personal ownership of the tools of labor and perform various duties in favor of the feudal lords.

Signs of capitalism:

commodity-money relations, machine labor;
the presence of two classes - the bourgeoisie and the proletariat;
the bourgeoisie owns the means of production, the proletariat is personally free and forced to sell its ability to work.

Question 3. Great geographical discoveries and the beginning of European colonial expansion.

The most famous navigators and their discoveries.

1) Bartolomeo Dias (1488) - Portuguese.

The first European sailed around Africa to India.

2) Christopher Columbus (1492)

He discovered the island of Haiti (Cuba), San Salvador and the Sargasso Sea. He was declared king of the lands annexed to America.

3) Amerigo Vespucci (1499-1504)

He was the first to guess that America was not India, but a new continent and discovered Brazil.

4) Vasco da Gama (1497-1498)

Traveled to India around Africa. Thanks to him, the Portuguese colonization of India begins.

5) Ferdinand Magellan (1519-1521)

First round-the-world trip.

6) Hernan Cortes - Spanish conquistador, conqueror of Mexico (1519-1521). He brutally dealt with the Indian tribes.

7) Ermak, Vasily Polyakov, Semyon Dezhnev, Erofey Khabarov (1581-1640) -

exploration of Siberia.

8) William Barents (1596-1597)

He discovered the Barents Sea and the island of Svalbard.

Significance of the great geographical discoveries:

1) A breakthrough in the economy.

2) New in culture, zoology, botany, ethnography.

3) New foodstuffs appear: potatoes, corn, tomatoes, tobacco, coffee, cocoa, chocolate, cola and rubber.

Question 4. Europe in the 17th century: state and power. Diplomacy. coalition system.

What happened in Europe in the 17th century?

Formation of centralized states, religious wars, famines, revolutions. The first bourgeois revolution took place in Holland in 1566. As a result, Holland, which was a colony of Spain, achieved independence, created a parliament and became the best European country in trade and shipbuilding.

The Valois dynasty rules, but all the kings - Francis II and Charles I - rule for a short time and die childless. In 1572, at the initiative of the Queen Mother Catherine de Medici, Bartholomew's Night took place, when all the Huguenots (Protestants) who came to Paris for the wedding of Henry of Navarre and Margaret of Valois were killed. After the death of the last king of the Valois dynasty, Henry III, who died young and childless, the dynasty ended.

The most famous kings of France

Henry IV of Navarre (1594-1610) became King of France and founded the new Bourbon dynasty. His son Louis XIII (1610-1643) dissolved the Parliament, the Estates General. Under him, the country was ruled by a brilliant politician who achieved the prosperity of France - Cardinal Richelieu. Louis XIV (1643-1715) built Versailles and strengthened absolutism. His son Louis XV (1715 - 1774) continued his policy. His grandson Louis XVI was executed by the Jacobins by court order in January 1793. In October of the same year, his wife Marie Antoinette was also executed.

Germany.

The birthplace of the Reformation: Martin Luther and John Calvin, the ideologists of Protestantism, lived in Germany.

The most famous war of the 17th century is the Thirty Years' War, in which all the countries of Europe participated. (1618-1648).

Question 5. English Revolution (1640-1649).

In 1640, England was the foremost power and had a first-class navy. The nobles wanted to transfer legislative power to Parliament, which was dissolved by King Charles I in 1628. The uprising was led by Oliver Cromwell, who created a parliamentary army, defeated the royal troops and captured King Charles I, who was executed by court order in 1649.

England became a republic. Cromwell chaired the Supreme Council and served as Lord Protector until his death in 1658. The son of Oliver Cromwell could not hold on to power and civil war begins again in England.

In 1688, a coup d'etat took place in England, a constitutional monarchy was established with limited power of the king. William of Orange, ruler of Holland, was elected king.

Question 6."Enlightened absolutism" in Austria, Prussia, Russia.

"Enlightened absolutism" is a form of government of the 17th-18th century, in which the monarch has absolute power, but in these states people feel free. The press is almost freely printed. There are many educational institutions, the Academy of Sciences. Scientific research and expeditions are financed. Emperors and empresses correspond with the most famous enlightenment philosophers (Voltaire, Denis Diderot).

Examples: Austria (Maria Theresa (1765-1780)), Prussia (Frederick II (1740-1786)), France (Louis XIV (1643-1715)), Russia (Catherine II (1762-1796)).

Question 7. Age of Enlightenment: The Theory of Social Equality. Cult of Reason.

The Age of Enlightenment is the 18th century, which gave Europe freedom of speech, the flowering of philosophy, science, culture, and education.

During the 16-18 centuries. geographical discoveries constantly expanded the horizons of the European: the world was growing rapidly. If in the 15th century well-known in Europe, the lands stretched from India to Ireland, then by the beginning of the 19th century, the Spaniards, the British, the Dutch, the French owned the whole world. The streak of outstanding discoveries started by Nicolaus Copernicus was continued by the works of Isaac Newton, who formulated the law of universal gravitation. As a result of their labors, by the end of the 17th century. the former picture of the world has become yesterday even in the eyes of the inhabitants: the Earth - the biblical center of the universe - has turned from the center of the universe into one of the few satellites of the sun; the Sun itself turned out to be only one of the stars that complement the infinite Cosmos.

So was born modern science. It broke the traditional connection with theology and proclaimed experiment, mathematical calculation and logical analysis as its foundations. This led to the emergence of a new worldview, in which the concepts of "reason", "nature", "natural law" became the main ones. From now on, the world was seen as a gigantic complex mechanism operating according to the exact laws of mechanics (it is no coincidence that a mechanical watch was a favorite image in the writings of politicians, biologists and doctors in the 17th and early 18th centuries). In such a well-oiled system, there was little room for God. He was assigned the role of the initiator of the world, the root cause of all things. The world itself, as if having received a push, further developed independently, in accordance with the natural laws that the Creator created universal, unchangeable and accessible to knowledge. This doctrine is called deism, had many followers among naturalists of the 17th-18th centuries.

But perhaps the most important step taken by the new philosophy was the attempt to extend the laws of nature to human society. A conviction appeared and grew stronger: both the person himself and social life are subject to unchanging natural laws. They only need to be discovered, written down, to achieve an accurate and universal performance. A way was found to create a perfect society built on "reasonable" foundations - a guarantee of the future happiness of mankind.

The search for the natural laws of the development of society contributed to the emergence of new teachings about man and the state. One of them - natural law theory, developed by European philosophers of the 17th century. T. Hobbes and D. Locke. They proclaimed the natural equality of people, and therefore the natural right of every person to property, freedom, equality before the law, human dignity. Based on the theory of natural law, a new view of the origin of the state was also taking shape. The English philosopher Locke believed that the transition of once free people to "civil society" is the result of a "social contract" concluded between peoples and rulers. The latter, according to Locke, are given some of the "natural rights" of fellow citizens (justice, external relations, etc.). Rulers are obliged to protect other rights - freedom of speech, belief and the right to private property. Locke denied the divine origin of power: monarchs must remember that they are part of "civil society."

A whole era began in the history of Western culture, bringing with it a new understanding of the world and man, profoundly different from the medieval one. They called her the Age of Enlightenment- by the name of a powerful ideological trend, which by the middle of the 18th century. widely covered European and American countries. In the 18-19 centuries. it had a strong influence on science, socio-political thought, art and literature of many peoples. Why the 18th century went down in history Age of Reason, Age of Enlightenment.

This movement was represented by outstanding philosophers, scientists, writers, statesmen and public figures from different countries. Among the enlighteners were aristocrats, nobles, priests, lawyers, teachers, merchants and industrialists. They could hold different, sometimes opposing views on certain issues, belong to different faiths or deny the existence of God, be staunch republicans or supporters of easy restriction of the monarchy. But all of them were bound by a common goal and ideals, a belief in the possibility of creating a just society in a peaceful, non-violent way. "Enlightenment of Minds", the purpose of which is to open people's eyes to the reasonable principles of organizing society, to advance their world and themselves - this is the essence of the Enlightenment and the main meaning of the activities of enlighteners.

Question 8. Technological progress and the Great Industrial Revolution in Europe in the 17th century.

Geographic discoveries continue. Cities, factories, plants are being built, new machine tools, a steam engine, a conveyor belt and other technical innovations appear. Ships, new weapons, battle tactics.

The industrial revolution is a consequence of scientific and technological progress and the social development of European states, primarily England.

In historiography, the industrial revolution is understood as a set of scientific, technological, economic, social and political shifts or profound changes that marked the transition from the manufacturing stage of production to the factory system of capitalist or socialist production, based on a system of machines or machine technology. As a result of the industrial revolution, the market capitalist economy received its technical base. This society, based on private property and a market economy and capitalist production, finally established itself in those countries where this revolution took place. Speaking in Marxist terms, this formation received a base and stood on its feet. The industrial revolution took its most distinct classical form in England, from which everyone starts as a standard of measurement. This was due to the fact that in England the conditions necessary for this were ripe first of all.

Scientific and technical conditions were covered at the last lecture. This is the invention of working machines, which from the 1760s gave rise to the industrial revolution.

And the socio-economic conditions are: the development of the processes of primitive accumulation of capital, which mean the formation of two poles. Upper pole: capital that requires its use, otherwise it will be a "chest of a miserly knight." And below - huge masses of cheap means of production and people selling their hands, their labor.

This process of primitive accumulation was most profound in England, as a result of the de-peasantization of the countryside, the enclosure and the formation of a land market, which was the result of two revolutions: the Great and Glorious Revolution of the 17th century.

According to the degree of transformation of society that European countries underwent, contemporaries very often compare this coup with a deep political revolution. Therefore, in historiography, in addition to the term industrial revolution, the term industrial revolution is often used.

The industrial revolution began in England in the 60s for the reasons stated.

1769 Arkwright invents the water machine, creates the first factory, which employs several hundred people. And after 20 years in England, where the population is about 6 million people, i.e. by the end of the 1780s of the 18th century, 143 such spinning mills were in operation. Each of them has 700-800 or more people. This is all the industrial proletariat, mostly women and children so far.

The invention of the loom led to the development of not only the cotton-spinning, but also the cotton-weaving industry. Technological progress is taking place, advances are taking place in the chemical industry, because fabrics need to be bleached, dyed, and so on.

The invention of the Watt double-acting steam engine, the final version that gave England an 11% increase in gross domestic product by the end of the 18th century, leads to an increase in the demand for metal, since machine tools and steam engines are made of metal. Accordingly, technical progress covers the metallurgical, ferrous, non-ferrous industries, etc.

As a result, from the beginning of the 19th century, a revolution in transport begins. The invention of steam transport on wheels, the steamboat. The beginning of this revolution leads to the fact that in the country, in England, and then in other countries, industrial industrial centers arise, where these factories are concentrated, a working population grows, which works from morning to night in these factories for 14-16 hours. The market for agricultural products is growing. Therefore, around these centers, the same Birmingham, Manchester in England, areas of intensive agriculture, gardening, meat and dairy farming are being formed, which supply these growing cities.

The progress of industry in England, the demand throughout the world for these machines and products of the factory industry lead to the fact that already in the first third of the 19th century England becomes the "workshop of the world", supplying goods to all of Europe and the whole world.

The growth of economic power contributes to the fact that the political and military power of England is growing. All this leads to a rapid change in the demographics and economic geography of the same England.

Demographics: The population of the British Isles in 1756 is 5 million 590 thousand people. In 100 years - already about 16 million people! Life has become better, and the process has begun. And this is despite the fact that England is constantly at war, and a huge flow of migrants from the British Isles leaves for a better life anywhere: to Australia, the USA, Canada.

Geographical changes: from practically nothing, from places that only know

Question 9. US education.

US education.

By the end of the 18th century, the United States consisted of 13 independent colonies: the northern colonies had developed production, the southern colonies had plantation with slave labor. The cause of the War of Independence was the policy of plundering the colonies by England. In 1774, the First Continental Congress met in Philadelphia and approved the petition for independence. In response, England launched military operations, but was defeated by the troops of George Washington. As a result, England was forced to recognize the independence of the United States.

1781 Articles of Confederation establishing the union of the thirteen states.

1787 - adoption of the US Constitution (still in force).

1791 - Bill of Rights - the first 10 amendments to the Constitution, containing the rights and freedoms of man.

Question 10. French Revolution of the 17th century.

Great bourgeois revolution (1789 - 1799)

Stages of the revolution:

1) July 14, 1789 - the storming of the Bastille. The uprising spreads throughout France, the king is arrested.

3) The coup d'état and the Jacobin dictatorship 1793: the execution of the king and queen. Massacres of nobles. Guillotine - a special machine for chopping off heads. Jacobins - Danton, Robespierre, Marat, Desmoulins - the leaders of the Jacobins, who initiated a terrible terror. For 7 months in 1793, 4 million people were executed in Paris! All Jacobin leaders were subsequently executed.

4) Coup 9 Thermidor. Establish directory mode. France has a new constitution. The country is ruled by the Council of Five Hundred instead of Parliament. The war continues.

5) The coup of 18 Brumaire (November 9, 1799) and the coming to power of Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon with the guards broke up the Council of Five Hundred and headed the provisional government. Three consuls acted as president - Napoleon Bonaparte, Roger Ducos and Sieyes. Soon, two other consuls gave Napoleon emergency powers. Napoleon soon became emperor, but he retained the parliament, the constitution, and all the democratic achievements of the revolution.

MAIN LITERATURE

1. Fortunatov V.V. "Story". Tutorial. third generation standard. For bachelors and specialists. SPb., PETER, 2014. 464 p. 1 copy

2. Samygin P.S., Samygin S.I., Shevelev V.N. "Story". Tutorial. M., NITs INFRA-M, 2013. 528 p. 1 copy

3. Artemov V.V., Lubchenkov Yu.N. History of the Fatherland from ancient times to the present day. Textbook for students of secondary vocational schools. Moscow, Masterstvo Publishing House, 2012. 360 p. 19 copies

ADDITIONAL LITERATURE

1. Apalkov V.S., Minyaeva I.M. "The history of homeland". Tutorial. 2nd edition. M., Alfa-M; Research Center INFRA-M, 2012. 544 p. 1 copy

2. Kuznetsov I.N. "History of the Fatherland in tests - getting ready for the exam." Rostov-on-Don, Phoenix, 2012. 224 p. 2 copies

3. Moryakov V.I., Fedorov V.A., Shchetinov Yu.A. "Fundamentals of the course of the history of Russia". Textbook.

M., TK Velby, Prospekt Publishing House, 2013. 464 p. 1 copy

4. Klyuchevsky V.O. "A complete course of Russian history in one book". M., AST; Astrel-SPb., 2012. 510 p. 6 copies

5. Soloviev S.M. History of Russia since ancient times. M., Eksmo, 2011. 1024 p. 8 copies

6. Vasiliev L.S. "General history". Textbook in 6 volumes. M., Higher School, 2010. Volume 1. 448 p. Volume 3. 606 p. 1 copy

7. Boguslavsky V.V. "Rulers of Russia: a biographical dictionary". M., OLMA PRESS Grand Cover, 2012. 912 p. 2 copies

The power of the Ottoman Empire reached its peak in the middle of the 16th century. The reign of Suleiman I the Magnificent (1520-1566) is considered the Golden Age of the Ottoman Empire. Suleiman I surrounded himself with many capable dignitaries. Most of them were recruited according to the devshirme system or captured during army campaigns and pirate raids, and by 1566, when Suleiman I died, these "new Turks", or "new Ottomans", already firmly held power over the entire empire in their hands. They formed the backbone of the administrative authorities, while the highest Muslim institutions were headed by the indigenous Turks. Theologians and jurists were recruited from among them, whose duties included interpreting laws and performing judicial functions.

In 1521 the Ottoman army crossed the Danube and captured Belgrade. This victory, which Mehmed II could not achieve at one time, opened the way for the Ottomans to the plains of Hungary and to the basin of the upper Danube. In 1526 Suleiman took Budapest and occupied all of Hungary. In 1529, the sultan began the siege of Vienna, but was unable to capture the city before the onset of winter. Nevertheless, a vast territory from Istanbul to Vienna and from the Black Sea to the Adriatic Sea formed the European part of the Ottoman Empire, and Suleiman during his reign carried out seven military campaigns on the western borders of the state.

Suleiman fought in the east as well. The borders of his empire with Persia were not defined, and the vassal rulers in the border regions changed their masters, depending on which side the power was on and with whom it was more profitable to conclude an alliance. In 1534, Suleiman took Tabriz, and then Baghdad, including Iraq in the Ottoman Empire; in 1548 he regained Tabriz. The Sultan spent the entire 1549 in pursuit of the Persian Shah Tahmasp I, trying to fight him. While Suleiman was in Europe in 1553, Persian troops invaded Asia Minor and captured Erzurum. Having expelled the Persians and devoted most of 1554 to the conquest of the lands east of the Euphrates, Suleiman, according to the official peace treaty concluded with the shah, received a port in the Persian Gulf at his disposal. The squadrons of the naval forces of the Ottoman Empire operated in the waters of the Arabian Peninsula, in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Suez.

From the very beginning of his reign, Suleiman paid great attention to strengthening the maritime power of the state in order to maintain the superiority of the Ottomans in the Mediterranean. In 1522 his second campaign was directed against Fr. Rhodes, lying 19 km from the southwestern coast of Asia Minor. After the capture of the island and the eviction of the Joannites who owned it to Malta, the Aegean Sea and the entire coast of Asia Minor became Ottoman possessions. Soon, the French king Francis I turned to the Sultan for military assistance in the Mediterranean and with a request to oppose Hungary in order to stop the advance of the troops of Emperor Charles V, advancing on Francis in Italy. The most famous of Suleiman's naval commanders, Khairaddin Barbarossa, supreme ruler of Algeria and North Africa, devastated the coasts of Spain and Italy. Nevertheless, Suleiman's admirals failed to capture Malta in 1565.

Suleiman died in 1566 in Szigetvar during a campaign in Hungary. The body of the last of the great Ottoman sultans was transferred to Istanbul and buried in a mausoleum in the courtyard of the mosque.

Under the new Sultan Selim II, the Ottomans began to lose their positions at sea. In 1571, the united Christian fleet met the Turkish in the battle of Lepanto and defeated it. During the winter of 1571-1572, the shipyards in Gelibolu and Istanbul worked tirelessly, and by the spring of 1572, thanks to the construction of new warships, the European naval victory was nullified. In 1573, the Venetians were defeated, and the island of Cyprus was annexed to the empire. Despite this, the defeat at Lepanto was an omen of the coming decline of Ottoman power in the Mediterranean.

Decline of the empire.

After Selim II, most of the Ottoman sultans were weak rulers. Murad III, son of Selim, ruled from 1574 to 1595. His stay on the throne was accompanied by unrest.

After the death of Murad III, 20 of his sons remained. Of these, Mehmed III ascended the throne, strangling 19 of his brothers. His son Ahmed I, who succeeded him in 1603, tried to reform the system of government and get rid of corruption. He departed from the cruel tradition and did not kill his brother Mustafa. And although this, of course, was a manifestation of humanism, but since that time all the brothers of the sultans and their closest relatives from the Ottoman dynasty began to be imprisoned in a special part of the palace, where they spent their lives until the death of the ruling monarch. Then the eldest of them was proclaimed his successor. Thus, after Ahmed I, few of those who reigned in the 17th-18th centuries. Sultans had sufficient intellectual development or political experience to manage such a vast empire. As a result, the unity of the state and the central government itself began to weaken rapidly.

Mustafa I, brother of Ahmed I, was mentally ill and ruled for only one year. Osman II, the son of Ahmed I, was proclaimed the new sultan in 1618. Being an enlightened monarch, Osman II tried to transform state structures, but was killed by his opponents in 1622. For some time, the throne again went to Mustafa I, but already in 1623 Osman's brother Murad ascended the throne IV, who ruled the country until 1640. His reign was dynamic and reminiscent of the reign of Selim I. Having reached the age of majority in 1623, Murad spent the next eight years in relentless attempts to restore and reform the Ottoman Empire. In an effort to improve state structures, he executed 10,000 officials. Murad personally led his armies during the eastern campaigns, banned the consumption of coffee, tobacco and alcoholic beverages, but he himself showed a weakness for alcohol, which led the young ruler to death at the age of only 28 years.

Murad's successor, his mentally ill brother Ibrahim, managed to largely destroy the state he inherited before he was deposed in 1648. The conspirators put Ibrahim's six-year-old son Mehmed IV on the throne and actually led the country until 1656, when the Sultan's mother achieved the appointment of Grand Vizier with unlimited powers talented Mehmed Köprülü. He held this position until 1661, when his son Fazıl Ahmed Koprulu became vizier.

The Ottoman Empire nevertheless managed to overcome the period of chaos, extortion and crisis of state power. Europe was divided by the Wars of Religion and the Thirty Years' War, while Poland and Russia were in trouble. This made it possible for both Köprül, after the purge of the administration, during which 30,000 officials were executed, to capture the island of Crete in 1669, and in 1676 Podolia and other regions of Ukraine. After the death of Ahmed Koprulu, his place was taken by a mediocre and corrupt palace favorite. In 1683, the Ottomans laid siege to Vienna, but were defeated by the Poles and their allies, led by Jan Sobieski.

Europe in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries

William Pitt - the great English orator of the XVIII century

Western Europe. - 1. Spain. - Spain of the 16th century, endowed by Columbus with a huge colonial state that included almost all of South and Central America with the Antilles, could become the richest trading state in Europe: the reasonable use of colonies, the development of industry and agriculture, which was facilitated by Peruvian gold and Mexican silver, could make of it what England is now.

Unfortunately, Spain became the victim of religious fanaticism, which developed in it as a result of a long war of independence with the Muslims: its kings of the 16th century, Ferdinand the Catholic, Charles V (1519-1556), Philip II (1556-1598), expelled the Moors, who were beautiful farmers, and then Jews, able businessmen; these were two irreparable losses for the country.

The number of monks increased; the monasteries appropriated vast lands to themselves; the Inquisition prevented the birth of the Reformation and killed the spirit of free inquiry, all striving for initiative.

Most of the precious metals of America, captured by the king, went to Spain to strengthen the army and to cover the costs caused by ruinous wars; the grandson of Ferdinand, Charles the Fifth, heir to the Spanish, Austrian, Dutch thrones, several Italian provinces, in addition, forced himself to be elected German emperor; all his life he fought with the French kings, with the German Protestant sovereigns and with the Turks, who threatened his Austrian possessions.

His son Philip II, who inherited only Spain, the Italian provinces, the Netherlands and the colonies, declared himself the defender of Catholicism throughout Europe: he sent troops against French, English and German Protestants; with his intolerance, he caused an uprising in the northern Netherlands (now Holland) and, fighting with them for thirty years, could not subdue them: Philip II completed the ruin of Spain.

Although in the 17th century this country produced several great painters - Velasquez, Murillo, and Spanish Flanders - Rubens and Tenier, wonderful colorists, but wars and continuous persecution exhausted Spain with people, money and killed all intellectual life in it. In the 18th century, her colonies wither away; she is deprived by the Peace of Utrecht of the Italian provinces and Flanders; Spain turns into a corpse.

This is what Catholicism and militarism have done in the course of three centuries from a country which, having acquired unexpected wealth thanks to Columbus, might have become the first colonial power of our time.

2. United Provinces or the Netherlands (Holland). The Netherlands was the first country to successfully take advantage of the discoveries of navigators and the impetus they gave to maritime trade and colonization.

Forced to constantly struggle with the sea and river floods that inundate the entire low-lying part of the country if it is not protected by dams, the inhabitants of the Netherlands have become fishermen and energetic sailors. In the sixteenth century they converted to Calvinism; but the Spanish king Philip II, whose subjects they were, since their country in the 15th century was inherited by the Spanish kings, wanted to force them to remain Catholics. With indomitable fortitude, under the leadership of the Dutch nobleman, William of Orange, whom they proclaimed dictator, they achieved, at the beginning of the 17th century, at the cost of a thirty-year war, political and religious independence. These liberated provinces, of which the main one was called Holland, continued to be governed separately, like autonomous republics, formed an alliance called the United Provinces, in which common affairs were decided by estate representatives.

In these republics, ruled by the bourgeoisie, trade flourished; the Dutch, whose main port was Amsterdam, became real sea "cabbies", buying local works in all countries and reselling them at a big profit. During the war of independence with Philip II, Portugal temporarily formed part of the Spanish possessions; the Dutch fleet took advantage of this to seize part of the Portuguese colonies: the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon and the Malay Archipelago, where the trading company founded Batavia, which became a large storage place for groceries in the Dutch colonies.

With money, liberty and life flowed in a wide stream in the United Provinces; freedom of the press was complete. There, Descartes sought refuge and a publisher for his work. Discourse on Method; in the same place, in the middle of the 17th century, the philosopher Spinoza, a Jew free from all religious beliefs, applied the method of Descartes to the criticism of the Bible for the first time; the great Dutch painter Rembrandt worked there, creating chiaroscuro, which gave amazing relief to his faces and large paintings with an ingenious arrangement of colors.

In 1672, Louis XIV unjustly attacked this republic of merchants who were too free and too Calvinist, in the opinion of the Catholic despot. To prevent the French invasion, the Dutch again restored the Stadthalter (dictatorship), which they entrusted to William of Orange, a descendant of the hero of the war of independence. William of Orange ordered the destruction of the dams and flooded the country; the French troops had to retreat and the United Provinces were saved, although half ruined.

3. England.- The strong impetus given to Europe by the Reformation, the Renaissance and the great discoveries of the sea, deeply shook England.

In the 16th century, the despot Henry VIII Tudor, having been refused a divorce by the pope, took advantage of the hatred that had accumulated in the Middle Ages against papal authority, and the sympathy met by Calvinism and Lutheranism among scientists, in order to break the ties with Roman Catholicism. With the exception of the Irish, who remained Catholics, all England began to profess the Anglican faith, which in dogma approaches Calvinism, and in appearance of organization - to Catholicism; Catholic celebrations and bishoprics were preserved, but the pope was not recognized; his authority was replaced by the English bishops. All monasteries were abolished, and their property was confiscated by the king and distributed partly to the courtiers, partly to the bishops.

The Renaissance caused two major phenomena in England: at the end of the 16th century, the dramatic works of Shakespeare, the greatest playwright of all time, and at the beginning of the 17th century. - Bacon's research, in which, on the basis of scientific data, he establishes a method corresponding to the study of physical and natural sciences: observation and experience.

But the fate of modern England was most influenced by maritime discoveries: they showed her, using the example of the benefits received by Spain, Portugal, and Holland from maritime trade, that her real vocation was navigation. England, which in the Middle Ages was an exclusively agricultural state, begins in the sixteenth century. to weave cloth from the wool of their own sheep, to make iron from their own mines, to build ships. New England in the district of the north-western mines and factory England is being built up slowly, and with it the rich bourgeoisie is growing. In the reign of Elizabeth (1558-1603), when Shakespeare appears, England finally passes into Protestantism and embarks on the path of commercial and maritime enterprises.

The Reformation, the Renaissance, the discoveries of navigators, the economic transformations in the 17th century had a different effect: they caused a political revolution.

After Elizabeth's death in 1603, the Stewarts, princes of the Scottish royal house, were the closest heirs to the throne. Thus Scotland joined England. Having become English kings, the Stuarts, James I (1603-1625), Charles I (1625-1649), showed their intention to rule indefinitely; they found support from large landowners and wealthy Anglican bishops ... The rich and hostile to innovation, the Anglican Church is in England the same conservative force as the Catholic Church in France.

But the bourgeoisie strove to take part in the government and create under the kings, in the form of control, a house of commons; because of the political oppositional spirit, she joined Calvinism, which is very common in Scotland under the name of Presbyterianism, which does not recognize bishops.

The people in general, in some of the more radical districts, adopted an even more simplified religion; they became known as Puritans. The Puritans led a very strict lifestyle, guided only by the Bible. In politics, they showed republican inclinations and formed a political party called the Independents.

The despotism of Charles I united the Parliamentary Presbyterians and the revolutionary Puritans with a common active bond. When Charles I began to make arbitrary arrests and raised taxes that Parliament did not agree to, a revolution broke out. Charles I was arrested, tried in the House of Commons, beheaded (1649): a republic was proclaimed and Cromwell, the leader of the Puritans, was declared dictator. He won over the bourgeoisie with the Navigation Act, which closed English ports to all foreign ships and patronized British maritime trade.

After his death in 1658, the fear of the bourgeoisie of the people's party provoked a reaction; again the Stuarts were called; but Charles II and James II, two sons of Charles I, followed their father's despotic ways, and a new revolution, less bloody but stronger, broke out in 1688. James II fled to France, and the House of Commons, representing the interests of the wealthy bourgeoisie, offered the crown to James II's son-in-law, William of Orange, the Dutch stadtholder, prescribing him a constitution obliging him to govern the country only together with parliament.

Since then, throughout the eighteenth century, kings began to respect the rights of their subjects, at least the English bourgeois; they did not allow themselves any more arbitrary arrests or illegal increases in taxes, and their ministers, especially both William Pitts, imbued with bourgeois commercial aspirations, spared no people, no warships, no money, to form a vast colonial state: in the second half of the eighteenth century Canada and India were taken from the French. But in America, the English colonists were treated so unfairly that they rebelled (1775-1781), won their independence and formed the North American United States.

At the end of the 18th century, however, England emerged as the largest commercial, maritime, and colonial power in Europe.

Central Europe. - 1. Italy.- From the end of the 15th century to the middle of the 16th century, Italy, which at the end of the Middle Ages was the cradle of the Renaissance, became an excellent breeding ground for artists: the greatest of them, Michelangelo, was at the same time an amazing architect (the dome of St. Peter in Rome), a wonderful sculptor , depicting strength and majesty, and a striking painter in a tragic image the Last Judgment,- a fresco admired in the Sistine Chapel in Rome. Along with him are Raphael and Leonardo da Vinci, both great Italian artists.

But the artistic genius of Italy did not survive either its material ruin or the suffocating Catholic oppression engendered in this country by the fear of Protestantism.

Italy, still divided into principalities at war with each other, was during the entire sixteenth century, and even later, the battlefield of the Spaniards, Austrians, French; the largest principalities passed to the Spaniards. These latter, in the sixteenth century, in full agreement with the Pope, instituted the Inquisition everywhere; literature and the arts, which require complete mental freedom for their development, were struck to death. The Italian Inquisition became famous for the trial of Galileo: this Italian scientist was the first to prove that the earth revolves around the sun. This statement seemed to contradict Scripture, especially the passage where it says that Joshua stopped the sun. Galileo, brought to the church court in 1632, in order to avoid being burned at the stake, had to renounce this belief and repent. They say that, leaving the court, he could not help saying: “E pur si muove!” "But it's still spinning!"

In addition, wars, accompanied by robberies and devastation, covered Italy with ruins; both ports, Genoese and Venetian, ill-positioned for trade with the newly discovered countries of the Atlantic Ocean, were ruined by the Turks, who conquered the Byzantine Empire, and by the robberies of the Turkish corsairs, sailing all over the Mediterranean; it was a complete fall.

2. Germany.- Germany, like Italy, has not yet achieved political unity during these three centuries. The Protestant Reformation, of which it was the cradle, was a new cause for its dissolution.

The monk Luther, supported by religious minds who were outraged by the riches, morals, and general way of the Catholic Church, as well as by needy princes who were eager to lay their hands on church lands, stirred Germany from 1517 until his death in 1546, preaching his teaching against the papacy and the celibacy of priests, in general against what he called Roman idolatry. Almost all the North German states adopted his teaching and confiscated church property, leaving it to secular power.

But southern Germany, which was in the power of the powerful Austrian sovereign, remained Catholic, thanks to the energetic and skillful activity of the Jesuits.

The Austrian Habsburgs, alone or in alliance with Spain, tried during the 16th and 17th centuries. take advantage of their position as emperors to keep the Protestant princes out of the way and become absolute masters in Germany, as they were in their hereditary dominions in Austria. For the first time, in the sixteenth century, under Charles V, they failed, partly due to the fact that the French kings Francis I and Henry XVII, due to their own selfish interests, supported the German Protestants; the second time, their attempt led to the terrible Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), which turned Germany into one vast field of general slaughter and into a heap of ruins. The ministers of the French kings, Richelieu and Mazarin, again made the attempt of the Austrian Habsburgs fruitless: the Peace of Westphalia provided the Protestant states of Germany with freedom of religion.

From that moment, from among the Protestant princes, one royal house, dexterous and uncompromising, was advanced and strengthened in the sight of the Austrian Habsburgs, namely the Hohenzollerns, the electors of Brandenburg and the kings of Prussia. In the 18th century, the most prominent of the kings of this house, Frederick II, a remarkable commander, emerged victorious from two seven-year wars with Austria (1741-1748 and 1756-1763) and took Silesia from her.

The Austrian sovereigns, who by the Peace of Utrecht acquired Milan and Flanders from Spain, and who during the sixteenth century inherited Bohemia and Hungary, had vast possessions, but they were scattered possessions, ruined by wars and taxes.

Incidentally, the whole of Germany was in this position; these wars killed commerce, industry, which had flourished so much during the Hanseatic League, and also the intellectual life, which began to develop so strongly towards the end of the Middle Ages.

Eastern Europe. 1 Turkey. Having mastered Constantinople, the Turks, thanks to their religious fanaticism and powerful military organization, conquered all of southeastern Europe; in the 16th century they captured Hungary, and in the 17th century they besieged Vienna several times.

But being fanatical conquerors, they were unable to merge with the conquered Christian peoples; they were encamped, as it were, in the conquered country.

Therefore, when by the XVIII century. their fanaticism subsided a little and their army fell into decay. Austria, with its well-organized troops, prevailed and drove them out of Hungary.

2. Poland. The Poles, belonging to the Slavic tribe, like the Russians, but professing the Catholic religion, occupied the plain along both banks of the river during the Middle Ages. Vistula; they kept the feudal system in full force: the nobles and the clergy kept the peasants in cruel serfdom; they themselves were subject to the king they chose.

In the 16th and 17th centuries, Polish light cavalry held back Turkish raids several times and saved Vienna from their attack.

But internal strife, poor military organization, almost unchanged since the Middle Ages, made it possible for the neighboring great states, Prussia, Austria and Russia, to subject Poland to three successive partitions: in 1772, 1793 and 1795, and to strike it out of the number of independent states.

3. Sweden. Sweden in the 17th century, for some time, played a very important role: this Protestant country was involved, due to the religious fervor and pride of King Gustavus Adolphus, in the Thirty Years' War between German Catholics and Protestants, and it can even be said that Gustavus Adolphus, with his brilliant campaigns to Germany saved the Protestant cause at the moment when it seemed to be dying (1630).

This military enterprise, too long due to reckless indulgence, gave rise to a taste for military campaigns among the Swedish ruling classes. At the beginning of the XVIII century. King Charles XII, an unbridled adventurer, madly threw his country into a long struggle on the continent with the Russian Tsar, Peter the Great. Sweden, bleeding from these insane undertakings, quickly sank to the position of a minor power.

4. Russia.- But, the most important event in the history of Eastern Europe in this era is the transformation of Russia from an Asian country into a European country.

Until the 18th century, the Russians, with their long beards, their clothes, their women who hid their faces under a veil, their Muscovite tsars, their boyars who were beaten with a whip, their priests dependent on the Greek Church, and therefore heretical in in the eyes of Catholics and Protestants, looked in Europe as Asiatic barbarians.

European merchants who settled in Moscow gradually accustomed Muscovites to European life. At the end of the 18th century, Peter the Great, an energetic and intelligent tsar who grew up among the sons of European adventurers and merchants who settled in Moscow, became addicted to European civilization. He visited Europe twice and decided to dress his boyars in European clothes and force them to learn European customs; he managed to remake all administrative institutions, taking as a model those that existed in the absolute monarchies of Europe. From that moment on, Russia had at its disposal a navy, diplomacy, a judicial hierarchy, financial officials, etc., in a word, all the mechanism that in modern states ensures the execution of the main public services by the government.

The most tangible result of this transformation was that the Russian tsars began to intervene in the feuds and wars of other European sovereigns. Catherine II (1762-1796), continuing the militant policy of Peter the Great, expanded the borders of Russia in the west about the possessions of Turkey, Poland and Sweden.

European progress in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries.- Despite the political and religious wars that stained Europe with blood and paralyzed the development of humanity, from the end of the 15th century. and until the end of the XVIII, it is still impossible to deny the real progress that has taken place during these three centuries in the mental and material spheres.

Material progress consists in the development of industry, trade, communications, navigation, and in the increase in the luxury of the rich classes.

Mental progress is reflected in the flourishing of numerous schools of painting in all countries, original national literature: the names of Michelangelo, Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci, Murillo, Velazquez, Tenier, Rubens, Rembrandt, Shakespeare, Corneille, Racine, Moliere quite convincingly indicate that the darkness of the Middle Ages was scattered.

But especially in the scientific field, a continuously progressing development is revealed. The Frenchman Descartes establishes the method of the mathematical sciences; the Englishman Bacon - the method of experimental sciences; along with the establishment of methods, valuable inventions of instruments are being made: the Dutch optician Jansen invents a telescope and a microscope, thanks to which it was possible to study infinitely small bodies (1590); In 1609, the Italian Galileo arranged the first telescope and with the help of it began to study the celestial abyss, and almost immediately (1619) the German Kepler, and later the Englishman Newton (1689) established the great law that governs celestial bodies: the law of universal gravitation.

In 1643, the Italian Toricelli invents a barometer, which makes it possible to measure atmospheric pressure; German Cornelius van Drebbel invents a thermometer that shows temperature changes; the German Otto Gerick invents a pneumatic machine (1650) or a pressure gauge used to measure the pressure of gases and vapors; Frenchman Denis Papin invents the first steam engine (1682). One begins to guess already about the applications of steam and electricity; but they do not yet go beyond the realm of mere attempts.

Science, that great international force that knows neither borders nor fratricidal hatred, inspired benevolent people with a premonition of a radiant future; and the French philosophers of the eighteenth century endowed all of Europe with their hope for the triumph of human reason over obsolete prejudices and social disasters, and Europe, listening to their voices, began to tremble in anticipation of a new era.

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5. Falsification of history in the 17th-18th centuries 1:13.1 and [TSIM], ch. 9, we talk about excavations in Central Russia carried out by Romanov archaeologists in the middle of the 19th century. In particular, in 1851–1854, Count A.C. Uvarov, whom today

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CHAPTER XII The Development of the New Russian Culture

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The 16th century is the century of great spiritual, cultural, political, religious changes and upheavals in the life of Europe.

By the end of the XV century. the culture of the Renaissance (Renaissance), which originated in the Italian city-states as early as the 14th century, spread to other countries of Western Europe.

The turbulent processes of that era led to profound changes in the ideology of Western European society.

Representatives of humanism contrasted church-scholastic learning with secular sciences and education. The secular (humanitarian) sciences studied not God with his hypostases, but man, his relations with other people and his aspirations, using not the scholastically applied syllogism, but observation, experience, rationalistic assessments and conclusions.

Humanism XV-XVI centuries. did not become a movement that embraced the broad masses of the people. The culture of the Renaissance was the property of a relatively small layer of educated people from different countries of Europe, connected by common scientific, philosophical, aesthetic interests, who communicated using the common European language of that time - Latin. Most humanists had a negative attitude towards religious movements, including reformation ones, whose members, in turn, recognized only the religious form of ideology and were hostile to deism and atheism.

Important for the widespread dissemination of both religious and secular ideas was the printing press, invented in the middle of the 15th century. and became widespread in the 16th century.

The doctrine of N. Machiavelli about the state and politics.

One of the first theorists of the new era was the Italian Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527). Machiavelli was for a long time an official of the Florentine Republic, having access to a number of state secrets. The life and work of Machiavelli belong to the period of the beginning of the decline of Italy, until the 16th century. the most advanced country in Western Europe. The writings of Machiavelli laid the foundation for the political and legal ideology of modern times. His political teaching was free from theology; it is based on the study of the activities of contemporary governments, the experience of the states of the ancient world, on Machiavelli's ideas about the interests and aspirations of participants in political life.

Machiavelli considered the state (regardless of its form) as a kind of relationship between the government and subjects, based on the fear or love of the latter. The state is unshakable if the government does not give rise to conspiracies and indignations, if the fear of the subjects does not develop into hatred, and love into contempt.

The focus of Machiavelli is the real ability of the government to command subjects. The book "The Sovereign" and other writings contain a number of rules, practical recommendations based on his understanding of the passions and aspirations of people and social groups, on examples of the history and contemporary practice of Italian and other states.

After writing the treatise "The Emperor" (1512), Machiavelli becomes a European celebrity. A very ambiguous glory haunts him: on the one hand, N. Machiavelli formulated the subject of political science, but he is condemned for creating a blasphemous work (with anti-Christian philosophy).

In his opinion, there are three forces in history: God, Fate and the Great Personality. Machiavelli was the first to pay attention to the role of personality in history.

The main features of his teachings:

1. Humanism: "A man can do everything: change the will of God, change his destiny, a man can be great even in atrocity. A man can change the course of history."

2. Anti-fatalism: the desire to change one's destiny.

3. Realism. Describe what is.

The essence of the treatise "The Sovereign" is the doctrine of politics.

A) Politics is an experimental science about the real state of things. Explores the world of power as it is.

B) Politics is the science of how to seize and retain power. The first formulated the concept of power. Power is a state of domination and submission.

C) Politics is a purposeful type of human activity. The goal is always the same - to support and offer power.

D) Politics is a special sphere of immoral social life, in the struggle for power one cannot be guided by moral criteria. Moral evaluation cannot be used in evaluating political actions.

E) Politics is autonomous in relation to religion.

E) Politics is a sphere where every end justifies the means.

G) Politics is an art. Politics cannot be taught, personality is paramount. There are no permanent means of success in politics. The choice of means depends on the situation.

Power Fundamentals:

1. Material foundations - strength. Numerous dedicated army. The politician himself must have the beginnings of a commander.

2. Power must have a social support - the people. (Machiavelli recommends relying on the people, it is better to exterminate the aristocracy.)

3. Psychological grounds (feelings). The people must love and (more) fear the ruler. There are psychological feelings that are harmful to power - hatred and contempt. You can't rob people. Contempt causes the inactivity of the ruler, his cowardice. The policy of the "golden mean". The ruler must learn to be unkind (the ability to lie, kill). The ruler must appear to be a great man.

Machiavelli considered the security of the individual and the inviolability of property to be the goal of the state and the basis of its strength. The most dangerous thing for a ruler, Machiavelli tirelessly repeated, is to encroach on the property of his subjects - this inevitably gives rise to hatred (and you never rob so that there is not even a knife left). The inviolability of private property, as well as the security of the individual, Machiavelli called the benefits of freedom, considered the goal and basis of the strength of the state.

Machiavelli reproduces the ideas of Polybius about the emergence of the state and the cycle of forms of government; following the ancient authors, he prefers a mixed (of the monarchy, aristocracy and democracy) form.

Religion should be one of the attributes of the state, should have a state status. The harm of Christianity for the state, tk. weakness of the state value in the state.

Political ideal (dual).

1. The most optimal is the Florentine Republic.

2. In the treatise "The Sovereign", absolute monarchy is the best form of government. The creation of a unified Italian state justified any means.

The works of Machiavelli had a huge impact on the subsequent development of political and legal ideology. They formulated and substantiated the main program requirements of the bourgeoisie: the inviolability of private property, the security of the person and property, the republic as the best means of ensuring the "benefits of freedom", the condemnation of the feudal nobility, the subordination of religion to politics, and a number of others. The most insightful ideologists of the bourgeoisie highly appreciated the methodology of Machiavelli, especially the liberation of politics from theology, the rationalistic explanation of the state and law, the desire to determine their connection with the interests of the people.

10 question. Jean Bodin's doctrine of state and law.

J. BODIN (1530-1596). Lawyer, politician, elected from the third estate to the States General. He is the theorist of absolutism in France. He is the creator of state law. "6 books about the republic". For the first time he established the concept of sovereignty as a mandatory feature of the state.

State- the right management of many families, invested with supreme power.

1) The state acts in accordance with justice, natural and divine laws.

2) The family is the main foundation of the state. Household power is similar to political power, but governs private property, while political power is common. But this power should not absorb family life and private property. Family power should be one and belong to the husband. He opposed slavery.

3) Supreme power - constant and absolute. A person invested with power can issue any laws, he obeys the law of God and natural and stands above human laws.

The device of the supreme power (forms of government):

1) Monarchy

2) Aristocracy

3) Democracy

Regarding perverse forms, Boden notes that these are different qualities of the same forms of power, but by no means independent. He also rejects mixed forms, because they lose to the unity of power.

Boden believed that monarchy- best shape. Other forms of government can exist only in small states. The monarchy must be necessarily hereditary and transmitted by birthright. The inheritance of the throne by a woman is not allowed, as contrary to natural law. The division of state power between several heirs is also not allowed. The power of the monarch is limited only by divine and natural law.

To maintain peace in the state, the ruler must stand above party interests, and this can only be achieved in a monarchy.

Bodin highly appreciates the role of the States General, which represent the interests of all three estates and restrain the desire of the supreme power for arbitrariness, publicizing abuses. Especially important is the prerogative of the States General to give consent to new taxes, because. You can not take someone else's property without the consent of its owner. Thus Bodin contradicts himself on this point.

Political changes in the state should not be made all at once. Of all the causes leading to coups, Bodin gives the first place to the uneven distribution of wealth.

Considers religion from the point of view of the state and the state benefit. He considered it necessary to ban all debate about religion, because they shake the truth in the minds, breed discord. State power must stand above the difference of religions and keep a balance between them. One cannot force anyone to believe, i.e. Bodin defends freedom of conscience.

"The Theory of Climate and Soil". Fertility affects the difference in rights, because. the inhabitants of the badlands are more enterprising, inclined towards crafts and arts. The inhabitants of fertile lands have no such motives. All this is reflected in the state system: the brave inhabitants of the North and the highlanders cannot stand any other government than the people or establish elective monarchies. The pampered inhabitants of the south and the plains easily submit to the authority of a single ruler.

…………………….

The theory of state sovereignty. The political doctrine of J. Bodin

Religious wars significantly hindered the development of industry and trade; France broke up into a number of hostile and warring camps.

Jean Bodin (1530-1596) gave a justification for absolutism and criticism of the monarchomachs during the religious wars. A lawyer by education, a deputy of the third estate in the Estates General in Blois, Bodin opposed feudal decentralization and religious fanaticism. In his essay “Six Books on the State” (published in French in 1576, in Latin for all of Europe in 1584), Bodin first formulated and broadly substantiated the concept of sovereignty as an essential feature of the state: “Sovereignty is the absolute and permanent power of the state ... Absolute power over citizens and subjects, not bound by any laws.”

The power of the state is constant and absolute; it is the supreme and independent power both within the country and in relations with foreign powers. Above the bearer of sovereign power - only God and the laws of nature.

Sovereignty, according to Bodin, means first of all the independence of the state from the Pope, from the Church, from the German Emperor, from estates, from another state. Sovereignty as supreme power includes the right to make and repeal laws, declare war and make peace, appoint senior officials, exercise the supreme court, the right to pardon, the right to mint coins, establish measures and weights, collect taxes.

In the doctrine of the state, Bodin largely follows Aristotle, but not Aristotle, distorted and mystified by medieval scholasticism, but genuine Aristotle, comprehended in the light of the subsequent history of political and legal institutions.

Bodin defines the state as the legal government of many families and what they have in common, on the basis of sovereign power. The state is precisely the legal administration, consistent with justice and the laws of nature; in law, it differs, as Cicero noted, from a gang of robbers or pirates with whom it is impossible to enter into alliances, enter into agreements, wage war, make peace, which are not subject to the general laws of war.

Boden calls the family the foundation and cell of the state. The state is a collection of families, not individuals; if they are not united in families, they will die out, and the people that make up the state do not die. Like Aristotle, he distinguishes three types of power relations in the family: marital, parental and master. Unlike Aristotle, Bodin was not a supporter of slavery. He considered slavery not always natural, a source of unrest and unrest in the state. Bodin stood for the gradual abolition of feudal dependence close to slavery where they still persisted.

Boden is one of the first critics of Utopia. While approving some of the thoughts of the “unforgettable Chancellor of England T. More” about the state order of Utopia, Boden persistently disputes his main idea. A state based on the community of property, wrote Bodin, "would be directly opposed to the laws of God and nature." Private property is connected with the laws of nature, since "natural law forbids taking someone else's." “Property equality is disastrous for states,” Boden repeated tirelessly. Rich and poor exist in every state; if you try to equalize them, invalidate obligations, cancel contracts and debts, “then you can’t expect anything but the complete destruction of the state, because any bonds that bind one person to another are lost.”

Bodin attached paramount importance to the form of the state. He rejects the widespread division of the forms of the state into right and wrong, since it expresses only a subjective assessment of existing states. Supporters of the power of one person call it "monarchy", opponents - "tyranny". Adherents of the power of a minority call such power “aristocracy”, those dissatisfied with it - “oligarchy”, etc. Meanwhile, Boden argued, the essence of the matter is only in who owns sovereignty, real power: one, a few or the majority. On the same basis, Boden denies the mixed form of the state - power cannot be divided “equally” in any way, some element will be of decisive importance in the state; whoever has the supreme power to make laws, such is the state as a whole.

Boden had a negative attitude towards democracy: in a democratic state there are a lot of laws and authorities, and the common cause is in decline; the crowd, the people, cannot decide anything good, persecutes the rich, uproots and expels the best, elects the worst.

Bodin also did not approve of the aristocracy, a state where power belongs to a college of nobles: there are few smart people among the aristocrats, as a result, a stupid majority rules; decision-making is associated with discord, with the struggle of parties and groups; the state does not vigorously suppress the indignations of the people, who are always rebelling against the nobles. For the same reasons, an aristocracy is unthinkable in a large state.

Bodin considered the monarchy to be the best form of state. The monarch, as naturally as the god of the universe, commands his subjects without interference; he has power in his own right (first acquired by force, then transferred by right of inheritance).

Referring to reason and history, Boden wrote that initially all states were created by conquest and violence (and not by voluntary agreement, as some tyrants argued). As a result of a just war, master (patrimonial) states arose in which the monarch rules his subjects like a father family. Such are the monarchies of the East.

In Europe, Bodin reasoned, the master states had become "legitimate monarchies" in which the people obeyed the laws of the monarch and the monarch obeyed the laws of nature, leaving natural liberty and property to the subjects. The monarch should not violate the “laws of God and the laws of nature”, which arose earlier than all states and are inherent in all peoples. The monarch, according to Boden, must be true to his word, abide by treaties and promises, the establishment of succession to the throne, the inalienability of state property, respect personal freedom, family relations, religion (the more there are, the better - less opportunities to create influential warring factions) , inviolability of property.

Bodin challenged the widespread opinion among the tyrant-fighters that the monarchy should be selective - during the election period unrest, strife and civil strife are inevitable; the elected monarch does not care about the common property, since it is not known who will succeed him on the throne; these shortcomings are devoid of hereditary monarchy, which, moreover, is traditional in France (the tyrants tried to prove that earlier monarchs were elective).

Bodin considered the best royal monarchy - a state in which the supreme power (sovereignty) belongs entirely to the monarch, and the government of the country (the procedure for appointment to positions) is complex, that is, combining aristocratic principles (for a number of posts, mainly in court and the army, the king appoints only noble) and democratic (some positions are available to everyone).

11 questions. Utopian socialism in England in the sixteenth century. (“Utopia” by T. Mora).

Initially, the ideas of socialism were clothed in the thoughts of Christian ethical authors about the kingdom of God. How a complete idea developed in the 16-17 centuries. This is the time of the birth of new capitalist forms of exploitation.

T. MOR (1478-1535) the founder of the idea. In 1516, "The Golden Book, as useful as it is funny, about the best organization of the state and about the new island of Utopia" was published. Thomas Moore is a jurist by education, “Utopia” was created by him during a trip to Flanders as part of the embassy.

"Utopia" - translated from Greek "a place that does not exist." Part 1 - criticism of the political and social vices of modern European states. Part 2 - about the non-existent island of Utopia.

Indicates a large number of nobility, robbing the people, authorities, instead of punishing the guilty, attacking the poor with bloody laws. The state is a conspiracy of the rich, fighting over their well-being under the guise of the state. Private property is evil.

Utopia Island, not far from America, on it 54 cities live in conditions of complete communism. The family is the basic social unit. In the city, the family is engaged in a certain craft. There are 40 adults in a village family (from 10 to 16 in an urban family), if a child wants to engage in another craft, he must be adopted by another family.

Around the city - fields that are processed by the townspeople in turn. Some of the townspeople move there, giving way to those who, after 2 years of work in the fields, return to the city. All produced products are transported to public houses, from here the head of the family receives everything necessary for the family. They dine in common dining rooms. Working day 6 hours.

Growth in productivity and abundance is explained by:

1. The absence of idle people (rich people, warriors, beggars)

2. Women work like men

3. Officials and those who are called to engage in science are exempted from physical labor. If they do not justify themselves, they are returned to physical labor.

4. There are fewer needs themselves, because there are no empty whims and imaginary needs. Everyone wears the same clothes, houses are determined for residence by lot; gold and silver are kept only in case of external war.

There is no community of wives. Marriages are strictly protected by law, they are indissoluble. Divorce is possible in case of adultery of the spouse, or unbearably hard character. A divorcee cannot remarry. Insulting a marriage union is lifelong slavery.

Unpleasant work is done by slaves and dedicated people. Slaves - sentenced for a crime and ransomed abroad sentenced to death, as well as prisoners of war taken with weapons in their hands.

Management of 54 cities is carried out on an elective basis. All officials are elected for 1 year, with the exception of the prince, who is elected for life. The important affairs of the city are decided by the Assembly of Officials, and sometimes by the People's Assembly.

30 families elect philarch. At the head of 10 philarchs is protophilarch.

At the head of the state prince and C enat(located in the capital to resolve common affairs) three deputies from each city.

The religions of the Utopians are different, but all converge towards the worship of a single deity. Few laws, no lawyers.

The social structure of Utopia is based on 2 principles that were denied in the ancient world: the equality of men and the sanctity of labor.

1566 - A spontaneous uprising began in the Netherlands, accompanied by the destruction of Catholic churches. 1572 - The Northern Netherlands is completely liberated from the occupying forces and proclaims Prince William of Orange as its ruler. 1588 - Northern provinces proclaimed themselves an independent state - the Republic of the United Provinces. 1641-1688 — English bourgeois revolution. 1642 - 1646 - Civil War in England. 1644 - victory at Marston Moor. 1645 - victory at Naseby. 1646 - Charles I is extradited to parliament, the civil war is over, the principle of "knight's holding" is abolished. January 1649 - execution of Charles I. May 1649 - a republic is proclaimed in England. December 1653 Parliament was dissolved, and Cromwell was proclaimed head of state with the title of Lord Protector. The protectorate regime lasted until 1660. 1669 - 1688. - temporary restoration of the royal dynasty of the Stuarts. 1688 - "Glorious Revolution", during which the last Stuart - James II was overthrown and the throne was taken by the ruler of Holland - William III of Orange. The meaning of the revolution: - a powerful blow to feudalism. - 1689 - the Bill of Rights limited the competence of the king in the legislative sphere in favor of parliament; laid the foundations of a bourgeois constitutional monarchy. The party that wins the majority in parliamentary elections becomes the ruling party. The government is formed from the leaders of this party and is accountable to parliament. - Acceleration of the process of breaking down feudal relations and the formation of bourgeois relations in Western Europe. The Great French bourgeois revolution had the greatest significance for Western civilization. King Louis XVI of France convenes the Estates General. May 5, 1780 - The Estates General began work. After the States General proclaimed themselves the National Assembly, that is, the body representing the interests of the entire nation, the king began to gather troops to Paris. July 14, 1780 - Capture of the Bastille. This event became a symbol of the beginning of the revolution, was the transition to an open struggle against the ruling regime. Historians identify several stages in the course of the French bourgeois revolution: the first (summer 1789 - September 1794) - the constitutional stage; the second (September 1792 - June 1793) - the period of struggle between the Jacobins and the Girondins; the third (June 1793 - July 1794) - the Jacobin dictatorship and the fourth (July 1794 - November 1799) - the decline of the revolution. August 1789 - The National Assembly adopted a number of important resolutions that destroyed the foundations of feudal society in France: the church tithe was canceled free of charge, the rest of the duties of the peasants were subject to redemption, and the traditional privileges of the nobility were also liquidated. On August 26, 1789, the “Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen” was adopted, within the framework of which the general principles for building a new society were proclaimed - natural human rights, equality of all before the law, the principle of popular sovereignty. By the autumn of 1791, the preparation of the first French Constitution was completed, which proclaimed a constitutional monarchy in the country. An important feature of the revolution in France was that the counter-revolution acted mainly from outside. The French nobility, who fled the country, formed an "invading army" in the German city of Koblenz, preparing to return the "old regime" by force. April 1792: French war begins against Austria and Prussia. On August 10, 1792, an uprising took place in Paris; Louis XVI and his entourage were arrested. The Legislative Assembly changed the electoral law (elections became direct and universal) and convened the National Convention. September 22, 1792 France was proclaimed a republic. The first stage of the revolution is over. The events in France at the second stage of the revolutionary struggle were largely of a transitional nature. The leading position in the Convention is occupied by the most radical grouping of the Jacobins. Fight between Girondins and Jacobins. On April 6, 1793, the Committee of Public Safety was created to fight against the counter-revolution and wage war, which later became the main body of the new revolutionary government. On June 2, 1793, the Jacobins organized an uprising against the Girondins, during which the latter were destroyed. More than a year-long Jacobin dictatorship began. The revised Constitution (June 24, 1793) completely abolished all feudal obligations, turning the peasants into free owners. Although formally all power was concentrated in the Convention, in reality it belonged to the Committee of Public Safety, which had virtually unlimited powers. With the coming to power of the Jacobins, France was swept by a wave of large-scale terror: thousands of people, declared "suspicious", were thrown into prison and executed. Largely due to these measures, the French revolutionary army, recruited on the basis of universal military service, in 1793-1794. was able to win a series of brilliant victories, repelling the offensive of the English, Prussian and Austrian interventionists and localizing a dangerous royalist uprising in the Vendée (in northwestern France). The deputies of the Convention, who were not satisfied and frightened by the cruelty of Robespierre, organized an anti-Jacobin conspiracy. July 27, 1794 (9 Thermidor on the revolutionary calendar) he was arrested and executed. The Jacobin dictatorship fell. In 1795 a new constitution was drafted. The Legislative Assembly was re-created; executive power passed into the hands of the Directory, consisting of five members. In the interests of the big bourgeoisie, all emergency economic decrees of the Jacobins were cancelled. 1796 - 1799 - the grandiose Italian and Egyptian campaigns, during which the young talented general Napoleon Bonaparte gained immense popularity. On November 9 (Brumaire 18), 1799, a coup d'etat took place (the Directory was deprived of power. A new provisional government headed by Napoleon Bonaparte was created).