Testosterone – a hormone that plays a critical role in male sexual development and regulation of their ability to produce viable offspring. Violation of its quantitative indication usually indicates the development of various pathologies, especially of an endocrine nature, in the testes (for example, with a tumor of these glands).

Meaning of the term

Initially, it should be noted that this indicator is calculated. It is obtained from a percentage comparison of data on total testosterone and sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) in the blood.

Total testosterone is distinguished by a combination of three conditions. One fraction of it is associated with albumin (23-63%), the second - with globulin (33-73%) and the third, the smallest (1-2%), the so-called free testosterone or active androgen, which is produced in male testes and not reacts with proteins.

Free androgen, although present in small quantities, is its role in the male body is very important, it:

• affects the maturation and production of reproductive parts;
• regulates spermatogenesis;
• affects sexual desire;
• helps build muscle tissue;
• prevents the accumulation of fat deposits;
• normalizes the exchange of phosphorus and nitrogen.

Individually, free testosterone cannot be isolated. It is defined as the difference between the total androgen and protein-bound hormone levels. It is this residue that is called the “free testosterone index”.

It is calculated as a percentage. But to do this, a study is first carried out to determine the presence of the amounts of the above hormones. As a result of their comparison, this index is determined.

IMPORTANT! The transformation of testosterone into the appropriate form occurs under the influence of certain chemical influences in which various enzymes take part. In the absence of at least one of them, incomplete maturation of the reproductive organs occurs.

Index calculation method

So, from the above it is already known that the free testosterone index is determined as a percentage. Such a calculation is indicated in connection with obvious clinical signs of a violation of the level of glucocorticoids produced by the sex secretion glands, in one direction or another. Moreover, the amount of the hormone in this case may remain normal.

The index is calculated as follows: the total androgen indicator is divided by the amount of SHBG, and the resulting result is multiplied by 100. The calculator for calculating active hormones is widely used in medical institutions; it is easy to find on the relevant Internet sites.

How is the analysis done?

Diagnosis is carried out for certain indications:

The analysis is done in special centers or laboratories. First, blood serum is obtained using centrifuges, which is then studied.

Preliminary preparation for such a study is necessary.:

1. before the analysis you cannot eat (the last meal is allowed 8 hours before taking it), you are only allowed to drink water;
2. since you cannot take medications before taking blood, and this procedure should be carried out 1-2 weeks after stopping them, this issue requires agreement with the treating doctor;
3. the day before the study, you need to give up fatty foods, fried foods, alcohol, and give up excessive physical activity;
4. The reason for refusing the analysis may be the previous day of X-ray, fluorographic examinations, ultrasound, or physiotherapeutic interventions.

IMPORTANT! In order for the test results to be accurate and reflect the true picture, you should prepare for their delivery with all responsibility. You should not rely on your own interpretation of the results; only an endocrinologist can accurately decipher them and determine an accurate diagnosis.

Blood is drawn from a patient's vein by a knowledgeable healthcare professional. This procedure is usually well tolerated, because the amount of material required is insignificant.

The timing of the analysis is also important. Usually this should be in the morning, before 11 o'clock. Violation of all these recommendations may affect the results of the study. Naturally, the indicators may be incorrect.

Taking the test requires mandatory registration of the patient. Therefore, you should take your passport with you.

In a day, when the result is usually ready, a laboratory employee will describe it, where he will clarify the identified deviations from standard indicators.

Representatives of the stronger sex need to monitor the level of free testosterone during each period of their sexual development. For young men who have not reached full puberty, this is important for determining true and false hermaphroditism. For men, this type of study is indicated when symptoms of a certain illness appear.

Normal values ​​in nmol/l, ng/ml, pg/ml

Recognition of research results always involves comparing the results obtained with established indicators. It should be noted right away that the units of research in medical institutions and laboratories may not be the same: nmol/l, ng/ml, pg/ml. This is not a problem, because the forms with final indices also indicate standard indicators in the units that were used. Based on this, it is not difficult to determine the results of the test yourself.

However in case of deviations from normal values, the patient should not make sudden conclusions. After all, such numbers may not always indicate pathological changes in the body. For example, the maximum amount of testosterone is usually observed in the morning. Then its level gradually begins to decrease and reaches its minimum in the evening.

If the androgen deviates from acceptable values, it can be adjusted. At the same time, the doctor does not eliminate this imbalance, but treats the cause of its occurrence. For this purpose, drug treatment is mainly used.

This hormone is also synthesized depending on the time of year. So, in spring it is greatest, and in winter it is smallest. Androgen surges, which are short-term in nature, also depend on depression, stress, etc.

Testosterone in blood serum in accordance with age development is determined in the following proportions (nmol/l):

• boys and men under 18 years of age – 0.2-37.67;
• men from 18 to 50 years old – 5.76-30.43;
• men over 50 years old – 5.41-19.54.

The norm of free androgen in representatives of the stronger sex is 4.5-42 pg/ml. It depends on age, and, as mentioned above, time of day. Its highest level is observed before the age of 30.

But if this indicator deviates upward, one can judge about liver damage, prostate cancer, excessive and rapid increase in adrenal cell tissue, pituitary tumors and other ailments.

A decrease in testosterone may indicate aging of the body, this is justified. If this indicator decreases for a certain age group, it may suggest the presence of such ailments as;

1. liver cirrhosis, diabetes;
2. hormonal disorders;
3. failures in the functional development of male gonads, etc.

Typically, androgen deficiency is characteristic of patients:

• with Down syndrome;
• for obesity;
• dysfunctions of the thyroid gland.

Bad habits also reduce this indicator.

Exactly a blood test for testosterone levels is an accurate diagnostic method, allowing the doctor to identify the problem and prescribe appropriate treatment.

You can learn about the norms of free testosterone in this video:

Conclusion

In the human body, as in nature in general, everything is balanced. Therefore, a change in this balance is the main sign of a health problem. In addition, a lack or excess of such an important hormone as testosterone can also seriously damage it.

If this condition is not diagnosed, the disease will become active., which will entail many other complications. Therefore, at the first signs listed in this material, rush to see an endocrinologist. Self-medication for hormonal diseases is unacceptable, because it is fraught with serious consequences.

PROGESTERONE and how to convert ng/ml to NMOL/ml?

I can’t find anywhere how much 39.4 ng/ml is in nmol. WHO KNOWS, TELL ME, PLEASE.

The value in ng/ml is multiplied by 3.18 and you get nmol.

HERE'S WHAT I FOUND on BabyPlan:
PROGESTERONE -Units of measurement: nmol/l.

Alternative units: ng/ml.
Conversion of units: ng/ml x 3.03 ==> nmol/l.

popular:
molecular weight of progesterone is 314.47 g/mol.
39.4 ng/ml=39400ng/l=39.4*10(1-6)g/l.
moving from grams to moles of a substance -
39.4*10(-6)g/l / 314.47g/mol=0.125*10(-6)mol/l=12.5*10(-4)mol/l=1250000nmol/l=1250nmol/ml
Please!

Recalculation methods are given on the Invitro website in the “interpretation of results” tab for the analysis, for example:
http://www.invitro.r. ctors/508/2334/

After the transfer - regime, well-being, discharge, etc.
LoveSanna, very, very sorry (I hug you, it’s good that the little ones are waiting, this is a great motivation for you.

Ovarian wasting syndrome. IVF for SIA
mirabella79, How many tablets per day? 2 pieces each?

Ovulation stimulation
Here you go. I decided to die today bt, 36.2. This means there was no O, and the injection was on Sunday morning.

Expected or not?
Look here please. Who has more experience than me? Is ovulation approaching or not? I think that.

8-9 dpo
I see stripes on the tests. I repeated 8-9 dpo at 10 dpo in the morning, I was just sure that it would brighten.

Tests
Jet test with a sensitivity of 10, presumably 16 DPO, yesterday on tests with a sensitivity of 10 barely ra.

"I want to warn you"
Many articles have been written for expectant mothers in print publications and on the Internet, and thousands of specialists have been created.

Gynecological smears for flora and degree of purity
A visit to the gynecologist is not complete without taking smears from the vagina and urethra to determine the degree of cleanliness and phlegm.

Hormone strategy
Not all women know that hormones, which are in the body and are associated with the monthly cycle, govern.

Source: www.babyplan.ru

PROGESTERONE, a natural steroid hormone of the corpus luteum, placenta and adrenal cortex. During puberty, with normal ovarian function, progesterone enters the woman’s body in the second phase of the menstrual cycle (ovarian cycle), when the corpus luteum is formed after ovulation.

As the functional activity of the corpus luteum increases, its production of progesterone increases, and by the end of the menstrual cycle, due to the reverse development of the corpus luteum, it decreases. This contributes to the periodic shedding of the lining of the uterus (endometrium).

The onset of pregnancy, accompanied by the preservation of the functional activity of the corpus luteum, is characterized by a gradually increasing production of progesterone. Starting from the 4th month of pregnancy, the placenta becomes the place of progesterone formation, from which it enters the pregnant woman’s body in increasing concentrations and only shortly before birth its intake decreases. Progesterone transfers the mucous membrane in the uterine cavity from a state of proliferation to a state of secretion, promotes its rejection or transfer to a pre-pregnancy state, stimulates the release of luteinizing hormone in small doses and inhibition in large doses.

The main physiological effect of progesterone in the female body manifests itself only at puberty.

Progesterone ensures the maintenance of pregnancy(disturbs the transition of excitation from one muscle fiber to another and inhibits the contractile activity of the uterus), necessary conditions for the development of the fertilized egg, stimulates the development of the end elements of the mammary glands.

It is used in the treatment of habitual and spontaneous miscarriage (see Abortion) (if their cause is insufficiency of the corpus luteum function), with light but prolonged dysfunctional uterine bleeding, to suppress lactation in Chiari-Frommel syndrome, reduce proliferative processes and eliminate them in the mucous membrane and muscular layers of the uterus, for the treatment of endometriosis, amenorrhea, algodismenorrhea, premenstrual syndrome, uterine fibroids, etc.

Progesterone: symptoms

When the body produces insufficient or excessive amounts of this hormone, symptoms may include the following:

• breast tenderness;
• sudden mood swings;
• bloating;
• menstrual irregularities;

Progesterone: When should I get tested?

Any test must be taken at the “correct” time. This also applies to this hormone. Since its concentration increases in the second half of the menstrual cycle, the appropriate time for analysis is the period after ovulation.

If you want to find out what concentration of progesterone is in your blood and when to take it, an ovulation test will tell you. Usually the test is taken on the 22-23rd day after the start of menstruation - with a 28-day cycle. If the cycle is longer (for example, 35 days), then it is taken on the 28th-29th day.

In any case, consult your doctor: he will prescribe progesterone test and will tell you which day of the cycle is best to take it.

With a regular cycle, the level of this hormone is analyzed seven days before the start of menstruation. When the cycle is irregular, measurements are taken several times. If a woman keeps a basal temperature chart, then blood is donated on the 6th or 7th day after its increase.

Blood test for progesterone, like other hormones, must be tested no earlier than 6-8 hours after the last meal. It is best to do this in the morning on an empty stomach.

Progesterone: normal in women

The units in which laboratories measure hormone levels are ng/ml or nmol/l. Their full name is nanograms per milliliter or nanomoles per liter. To convert ng/ml to nmol/l, you need to multiply the value in ng/ml by 3.18.

If the body of childbearing age produces this hormone in sufficient quantities, the norm in women ranges from:

• follicular phase - 0.32-2.23 nmol/l;
• ovulatory phase - 0.48-9.41 nmol/l;
• luteal phase - 6.99-56.63 nmol/l.

After menopause, the hormone level does not rise above 0.64 nmol/l. This hormone is produced in much larger quantities when carrying a child, its norm is:

• I trimester - 8.9-468.4 nmol/l;
• II trimester - 71.5-303.1 nmol/l;
• III trimester - 88.7-771.5 nmol/l.

If you take any medications while carrying a child and are tested for progesterone, be sure to inform the laboratory assistant about this. He will make the necessary notes to correctly decipher the indicators.

Progesterone by week pregnancy is produced with different intensity. Accordingly, the concentration of the hormone in the blood fluctuates. In addition, in various medical sources, hormone norms by week of pregnancy differ significantly. If your blood test results are different from those shown, don't worry.

Progesterone: Normal for men

In men, the level of this hormone is normally low, it ranges from 0.32-0.64 nmol/l.

Progesterone is reduced

If conception has occurred, and there is a lack of this hormone in the body, the body of the expectant mother does not “know” that she needs to prepare for pregnancy. A new monthly cycle begins, and the body rejects the fertilized egg in the uterus. So lack of progesterone may cause miscarriage in the first trimester.

A lack of the hormone can also be observed during a short luteal phase, when less than 10 days pass from ovulation to the start of the next menstruation. The duration of the luteal phase can be calculated using a basal temperature chart.

If after ovulation the hormone level is reduced, this indicates a hormonal imbalance. Its reasons may be:

• insufficient function of the corpus luteum and placenta;
• uterine bleeding not associated with menstruation;
• miscarriage;
• post-term pregnancy;
• chronic inflammation of the reproductive system;
• intrauterine growth retardation;
• taking certain medications.

In such cases, among other things, they prescribe progesterone treatment in dosage form.

Progesterone is increased

In women, the level of this hormone in the blood begins to rise in the middle of the menstrual cycle. During this period, the body prepares for a possible pregnancy. When the level is elevated, body temperature rises, including basal temperature.

An increased level may occur with:

• pregnancy;
• renal failure;
• uterine bleeding (not menstruation);
• deviations in the development of the placenta;
• corpus luteum cyst;
• absence of menstruation for more than 6 months;
• production of insufficient or excessive amounts of hormones in the adrenal glands;
• taking certain medications.

When the blood concentration of this hormone is low, medications are prescribed. Taking progesterone may cause side effects: high blood pressure, nausea, swelling.

Drugs are not prescribed if a woman has:

• vaginal bleeding;
• liver function is impaired;
• breast tumor.

Prescribe with caution in the following cases:

• diabetes mellitus;
• impaired kidney function;
• epilepsy;
• heart failure;
• migraine attacks;
• depression;
• bronchial asthma;
• breastfeeding;
• ectopic pregnancy.

A specialist can prescribe treatment only after an analysis. The dosage form in which the patient will take the drug - injections or tablets - is chosen by the doctor.

Types of injection solutions: progesterone 2.5%, progesterone 2% and progesterone 1%. In these preparations, the hormone is contained in a solution of olive or almond oil. The shelf life of the drug solution is 5 years from the date of manufacture.

Progesterone 1%, 2% and 2.5%, which is administered intramuscularly or subcutaneously, acts on the body faster and more effectively than tablets.

Form in which it is most often prescribed progesterone, injections. The doctor may prescribe a drug if your period is late to correct the hormonal balance. If your hormonal balance is disturbed, then this hormone, when your period is delayed, resumes the normal cycle. If you are pregnant and there is a risk of miscarriage, then it will help preserve the fetus.

OH-progesterone (other names: 17-OH-progesterone, 17-OH, 17-alpha-hydroxyprogesterone, 17-OPG), contrary to popular belief, is not a hormone. It is a product of the metabolism of steroid hormones, which is secreted by the ovaries and the adrenal cortex. This is a kind of “semi-finished product” from which important hormones are formed. If during pregnancy OH-progesterone is increased or downgraded, this is not a cause for concern. A blood test during this period does not provide any useful information to the doctor. It is important what level of progesterone the baby has after birth.

OH-progesterone: normal

An analysis of the hormone concentration is taken on the 4-5th day of the cycle. This must be done 8 hours or more after the last meal. If the adrenal glands are healthy and secrete OH-progesterone in sufficient quantities, the norm in women of childbearing age should be within the following range:

• 1.24-8.24 nmol/l - follicular phase;
• 0.91-4.24 nmol/l - ovulatory phase;
• 0.99-11.51 nmol/l - luteal phase.

During menopause, the hormone level decreases to 0.39-1.55 nmol/l. It can be increased in women during pregnancy:

• I trimester - 3.55-17.03 nmol/l;
• II trimester - 3.55-20 nmol/l;
• III trimester - 3.75-33.33 nmol/l.

Lack of OH-progesterone

When the level of the hormone in the body is low, the following may occur:

• abnormal development of the external genital organs in boys (pseudohermaphroditism);
• chronic insufficiency of the adrenal cortex (Addison's disease).

Increase in OH-progesterone

At elevated levels, the following may develop:

• adrenal tumors;
• ovarian tumors;
• congenital disorders of the adrenal cortex.

Disturbances in the functioning of the adrenal cortex can manifest themselves:

• increased amount of hair in women on the face and chest;
• acne;
• menstrual irregularities;
• polycystic ovary syndrome;
• stillbirth;
• miscarriages;
• early child mortality.

Congenital adrenal cortex dysfunction (CAD) in a woman can also lead to infertility, but sometimes symptoms do not appear and pregnancy occurs without complications. If you have a decrease or increase in hormone levels, consult a specialist. With correct and timely analysis, you will be prescribed treatment that will help avoid the unpleasant consequences of the disease.

Medical encyclopedia: use knowledge for health

Progesterone is often called the pregnancy hormone, since it is most actively synthesized after fertilization of the egg. During the period of bearing a child, this hormone maintains the uterus in a relaxed state, preventing its contractions and, accordingly, miscarriage or premature birth.

In non-pregnant women, this steroid is produced in smaller quantities, but, nevertheless, its role in maintaining women's health is no less important than during pregnancy.

The level of progesterone in women directly depends on age, period of the menstrual cycle and stage of pregnancy. In this topic, we would like to invite you to understand what progesterone is, what its norm and functions are in the body, and also what changes in its level may indicate. In addition, we will tell you in detail how to determine the amount of progesterone in the blood of women and how to prepare for such a study.

Progesterone is a steroid hormone that is synthesized in the female body mainly by the ovaries and placenta, as well as in small quantities by the adrenal cortex.

In non-pregnant women, progesterone is responsible for reproductive health, namely the regular occurrence of the ovulatory period and menstruation. In pregnant women, progesterone allows them to carry a child to term.

To better understand how progesterone is produced and when it is best to determine it in the blood, we suggest first understanding what the menstrual cycle is.

The menstrual cycle is a sign of puberty in women, which indicates that a woman can perform reproductive functions.

The normal duration of the menstrual cycle is from 25 to 33 days. This period is usually divided into four phases, namely:

What is the role of progesterone in the female body?

Progesterone in women performs many tasks, among which are the following:

• preparing the organs of a woman’s reproductive system for pregnancy;
• ensuring the normal course of pregnancy and childbirth;
• ensuring successful implantation of an egg fertilized by a sperm into the endometrium of the uterus.
• stopping the rejection of the decidual layer of the uterus, thereby preventing the appearance of menstruation;
• adaptation of the nervous system during pregnancy, childbirth and breastfeeding;
• maintaining a relaxed state of the uterus while bearing a child in order to prevent miscarriage or premature birth;
• increased sebum secretion;
• conversion of lipids into energy;
• participation in the development of the glandular apparatus of the mammary gland;
• preparing the mammary gland for lactation;
• reducing the risk of fibrous cysts in the mammary glands;
• participation in maintaining normal blood glucose levels;
• regulates blood sugar levels;
• increased blood pressure;
• providing libido;
• ensuring the formation of maternal instinct, etc.

The progesterone level in the blood test results is reflected in the form of nanograms per milliliter (ng/ml) or nanomoles per liter (nmol/l). To convert ng/ml to nmol/l, you need to multiply this number by 3.18.

As we have already mentioned, progesterone levels in women directly depend on the age and day of the menstrual cycle, and during pregnancy, on the period. Also, the amount of progesterone in the blood is affected by taking oral contraceptives, so this must be taken into account when deciphering the results.

Progesterone levels in non-pregnant women

As you can see, the trend is quite accurately demonstrated in how the level of progesterone depends on the phase of the cycle, with the maximum level of the hormone corresponding. Therefore, the most accurate analysis will be carried out from the 19th to the 23rd day of the menstrual cycle.

In postmenopause (menopause) the rate is less than 0.6 nmol/l.

Progesterone levels in pregnant women

The second table also shows us that progesterone levels increase with pregnancy. The highest levels of the hormone are in the last trimester, as this is necessary to prevent premature birth, as well as prepare the birth canal for delivery and the mammary glands for lactation.

The interpretation of a blood test for progesterone should be carried out exclusively by a specialist obstetrician-gynecologist, who will necessarily take into account the characteristics of the course and duration of pregnancy.

Progesterone test: how to prepare and when should you take it?

Blood test to determine progesterone levels prescribed to women in the following situations:

The progesterone test does not require any special preparatory measures; you just need to avoid eating food 8 hours before blood sampling.

In cases where the cycle duration is slightly longer (32-35 days), the analysis is performed on the 28th or 29th day of the cycle.

The regularity of menstruation plays an important role when choosing the time to take a blood test for progesterone. Therefore, when drawing blood, the nurse will definitely clarify when your last period began and how long your cycle is.

A blood test for progesterone during regular menstruation is carried out in the morning strictly on an empty stomach on the 21st day of the menstrual cycle, if its duration is 28 days. You can also conduct this study on the 22nd day or even the 23rd day, but the most objective results will still be on the 21st day of the menstrual cycle, since at this time the hormone level reaches its peak.

If you have an irregular menstrual cycle, a progesterone test is performed several times. When choosing a date for donating blood, you need to focus on ovulation, which is determined by rapid tests or by measuring basal temperature. In this case, the study is carried out on the 6-7th day after ovulation.

During menopause or during pregnancy, a blood test for progesterone is taken any day.

At your preliminary consultation with the doctor who is referring you for this study, you must inform him about taking any medications, as this may affect the objectivity of the results.

Blood test results for progesterone may be lower or higher than normal.

Progesterone is higher than normal: what are the reasons?

When progesterone is higher than normal levels, experts call this condition hyperprogesteronemia.

Causes of elevated blood levels of this hormone Non-pregnant women of childbearing age may have the following conditions:

If progesterone in the blood is too high, then A woman experiences symptoms such as:

• fast fatiguability;
• causeless weight gain;
• increased sweating;
• arterial hypertension;
• dysmenorrhea;
• acne;
• flatulence;
• increased sensitivity and soreness of the mammary glands;
• emotional lability.

Lack of progesterone: what are the causes?

A decrease in the amount of this hormone in the blood is called hypoprogesteronemia.

The causes of such hormonal imbalance may be the following conditions:

Symptoms of hypoprogesteronemia:

• infertility;
• frequent miscarriages in the first trimester;
• dysfunctional uterine bleeding;
• dysmenorrhea;
• unauthorized termination of pregnancy or premature birth;
• post-term pregnancy;
• placental insufficiency.

An obstetrician-gynecologist diagnoses and treats excess or deficiency of progesterone in women.

Regardless of whether the hormone in the blood is increased or decreased, you first need to find out why the hormonal imbalance occurred. To do this, a woman must undergo a comprehensive examination, the scope of which is prescribed by the attending doctor.

Almost always, a test is prescribed that simultaneously determines the level of estrogen and progesterone in the blood, since such a study is more informative.

When the cause of hypo- or hyperprogesteronemia is known, the treating doctor will prescribe treatment. For example, in case of cysts or tumors, surgical treatment is carried out, and in case of renal failure, kidney function is normalized, etc.

If there is an excess of progesterone, the basis of treatment is to eliminate the cause, because this is the only way to normalize the level of this hormone.

In case of progesterone deficiency, including during pregnancy, drugs from the group of progestins (Utrozhestan, Ingesta, Duphaston, Progesterone and others) are prescribed, which contain progesterone and are available in the form of injection solutions or tablets. Doses of drugs are selected strictly individually, depending on the results of the analysis.

• breast tumors of any quality;
• liver pathology;
• metrorrhagia.

Progestins are also used with caution, under the supervision of the attending physician, in patients with diabetes mellitus, kidney failure, epilepsy, bronchial asthma and migraine.

In addition to drug treatment, regardless of the level of the hormone in the blood, All patients need to adhere to certain principles, namely:

• elimination of stress;
• limiting physical activity;
• proper and healthy nutrition;
• active lifestyle;
• rejection of bad habits.

Thus, we can conclude that progesterone is one of the most important female hormones that are responsible for reproductive function, the normal course of pregnancy and preparation for childbirth. But, despite the importance of this hormone, in no case should you take medications containing it on your own, as this can have dangerous consequences for women’s health.

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1 microgram per liter [µg/l] = 1000 nanograms per liter [ng/l]

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Converted value

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Logarithmic units

More about density

General information

Density is a property that determines how much of a substance by mass is per unit volume. In the SI system, density is measured in kg/m³, but other units are also used, such as g/cm³, kg/l and others. In everyday life, two equivalent quantities are most often used: g/cm³ and kg/ml.

Factors affecting the density of a substance

The density of the same substance depends on temperature and pressure. Typically, the higher the pressure, the more tightly the molecules are compacted, increasing density. In most cases, an increase in temperature, on the contrary, increases the distance between molecules and reduces density. In some cases, this relationship is reversed. The density of ice, for example, is less than the density of water, despite the fact that ice is colder than water. This can be explained by the molecular structure of ice. Many substances, when transitioning from a liquid to a solid state of aggregation, change their molecular structure so that the distance between the molecules decreases and the density, accordingly, increases. During the formation of ice, the molecules line up in a crystalline structure and the distance between them, on the contrary, increases. At the same time, the attraction between the molecules also changes, the density decreases, and the volume increases. In winter, you must not forget about this property of ice - if the water in the water pipes freezes, they can break.

Density of water

If the density of the material from which the object is made is greater than the density of water, then it is completely immersed in water. Materials with a density lower than that of water, on the contrary, float to the surface. A good example is ice, which is less dense than water, floating in a glass on the surface of water and other drinks that are mostly water. We often use this property of substances in everyday life. For example, when constructing ship hulls, materials with a density higher than the density of water are used. Since materials with a density higher than the density of water sink, air-filled cavities are always created in the ship's hull, since the density of air is much lower than the density of water. On the other hand, sometimes it is necessary for an object to sink in water - for this purpose, materials with a higher density than water are chosen. For example, in order to sink light bait to a sufficient depth while fishing, anglers tie a sinker made of high-density materials, such as lead, to the fishing line.

Oil, grease and petroleum remain on the surface of the water because their density is lower than that of water. Thanks to this property, oil spilled in the ocean is much easier to clean up. If it mixed with water or sank to the seabed, it would cause even more damage to the marine ecosystem. This property is also used in cooking, but not of oil, of course, but of fat. For example, it is very easy to remove excess fat from soup as it floats to the surface. If you cool the soup in the refrigerator, the fat hardens, and it is even easier to remove it from the surface with a spoon, slotted spoon, or even a fork. In the same way it is removed from jellied meat and aspic. This reduces the calorie and cholesterol content of the product.

Information about the density of liquids is also used during the preparation of drinks. Multilayer cocktails are made from liquids of different densities. Typically, lower-density liquids are carefully poured onto higher-density liquids. You can also use a glass cocktail rod or bar spoon and slowly pour the liquid over it. If you take your time and do everything carefully, you will get a beautiful multi-layered drink. This method can also be used with jellies or jellied dishes, although if time permits, it is easier to chill each layer separately, pouring a new layer only after the bottom layer has set.

In some cases, the lower density of fat, on the contrary, interferes. Products with a high fat content often do not mix well with water and form a separate layer, thereby deteriorating not only the appearance, but also the taste of the product. For example, in cold desserts and smoothies, high-fat dairy products are sometimes separated from low-fat dairy products such as water, ice and fruit.

Density of salt water

The density of water depends on the content of impurities in it. In nature and in everyday life, pure water H 2 O without impurities is rarely found - most often it contains salts. A good example is sea water. Its density is higher than that of fresh water, so fresh water usually “floats” on the surface of salt water. Of course, it is difficult to see this phenomenon under normal conditions, but if fresh water is enclosed in a shell, for example in a rubber ball, then this is clearly visible, since this ball floats to the surface. Our body is also a kind of shell filled with fresh water. We are made up of 45% to 75% water - this percentage decreases with age and with increasing weight and amount of body fat. Fat content of at least 5% of body weight. Healthy people have up to 10% body fat if they exercise a lot, up to 20% if they are of normal weight, and 25% or more if they are obese.

If we try not to swim, but simply float on the surface of the water, we will notice that it is easier to do this in salt water, since its density is higher than the density of fresh water and the fat contained in our body. The Dead Sea's salt concentration is 7 times the average salt concentration in the world's oceans, and it is famous around the world for allowing people to easily float on the surface of the water without drowning. Although, it is a mistake to think that it is impossible to die in this sea. In fact, people die in this sea every year. The high salt content makes the water dangerous if it gets into your mouth, nose, or eyes. If you swallow such water, you can get a chemical burn - in severe cases, such unlucky swimmers are hospitalized.

Air density

Just as in the case of water, bodies with a density lower than the density of air have positive buoyancy, that is, they take off. A good example of such a substance is helium. Its density is 0.000178 g/cm³, while the density of air is approximately 0.001293 g/cm³. You can see helium soar in the air if you fill a balloon with it.

The density of air decreases as its temperature increases. This property of hot air is used in balloons. The balloon in the photograph at the ancient Mayan city of Teotihuocan in Mexico is filled with hot air that is less dense than the surrounding cold morning air. That is why the ball flies at a fairly high altitude. While the ball flies over the pyramids, the air in it cools down and is heated again using a gas burner.

Density calculation

Often the density of substances is indicated for standard conditions, that is, for a temperature of 0 °C and a pressure of 100 kPa. In educational and reference books you can usually find such densities for substances that are often found in nature. Some examples are shown in the table below. In some cases, the table is not enough and the density must be calculated manually. In this case, the mass is divided by the volume of the body. The mass can be easily found using a scale. To find out the volume of a body of a standard geometric shape, you can use formulas to calculate volume. The volume of liquids and solids can be found by filling a measuring cup with the substance. For more complex calculations, the liquid displacement method is used.

Liquid displacement method

To calculate the volume in this way, first pour a certain amount of water into a measuring vessel and place the body whose volume needs to be calculated until it is completely immersed. The volume of a body is equal to the difference in the volume of water without the body and with it. It is believed that this rule was derived by Archimedes. Volume can be measured in this way only if the body does not absorb water and does not deteriorate from water. For example, we will not measure the volume of a camera or fabric product using the liquid displacement method.

It is unknown to what extent this legend reflects actual events, but it is believed that King Hiero II gave Archimedes the task of determining whether his crown was made of pure gold. The king suspected that his jeweler had stolen some of the gold allocated for the crown and instead made the crown from a cheaper alloy. Archimedes could easily determine this volume by melting the crown, but the king ordered him to find a way to do this without damaging the crown. It is believed that Archimedes found the solution to this problem while taking a bath. Having immersed himself in the water, he noticed that his body had displaced a certain amount of water, and realized that the volume of displaced water was equal to the volume of the body in the water.

Hollow bodies

Some natural and man-made materials are composed of particles that are hollow, or particles so small that they behave like liquids. In the second case, an empty space remains between the particles, filled with air, liquid, or other substance. Sometimes this place remains empty, that is, it is filled with a vacuum. Examples of such substances are sand, salt, grain, snow and gravel. The volume of such materials can be determined by measuring the total volume and subtracting from it the volume of voids determined by geometric calculations. This method is convenient if the shape of the particles is more or less uniform.

For some materials, the amount of empty space depends on how tightly the particles are packed. This complicates calculations because it is not always easy to determine how much empty space there is between particles.

Table of densities of substances commonly found in nature

Substance	Density, g/cm³
Liquids
Water at 20°C	0,998
Water at 4°C	1,000
Petrol	0,700
Milk	1,03
Mercury	13,6
Solids
Ice at 0°C	0,917
Magnesium	1,738
Aluminum	2,7
Iron	7,874
Copper	8,96
Lead	11,34
Uranus	19,10
Gold	19,30
Platinum	21,45
Osmium	22,59
Gases at normal temperature and pressure
Hydrogen	0,00009
Helium	0,00018
Carbon monoxide	0,00125
Nitrogen	0,001251
Air	0,001293
Carbon dioxide	0,001977

Density and mass

Some industries, such as aviation, require materials that are as light as possible. Since low-density materials also have low mass, in such situations they try to use materials with the lowest density. For example, the density of aluminum is only 2.7 g/cm³, while the density of steel is from 7.75 to 8.05 g/cm³. It is due to the low density that 80% of aircraft bodies use aluminum and its alloys. Of course, you should not forget about strength - today few people make airplanes from wood, leather, and other lightweight but low-strength materials.

Black holes

On the other hand, the higher the mass of a substance per given volume, the higher the density. Black holes are an example of physical bodies with a very small volume and enormous mass, and, accordingly, enormous density. Such an astronomical body absorbs light and other bodies that are close enough to it. The largest black holes are called supermassive.

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1 nanogram [ng] = 1E-06 milligram [mg]

Initial value

Converted value

kilogram gram exagram petagram teragram gigagram megagram hectogram decagram decigram centigram milligram microgram nanogram picogram femtogram attogram dalton, atomic mass unit kilogram-force sq. sec./meter kilopound kilopound (kip) slug pound-force square. sec/foot pound troy pound ounce troy ounce metric ounce short ton long (English) ton assay ton (US) assay ton (UK) ton (metric) kiloton (metric) hundredweight (metric) hundredweight American hundredweight British quarter (USA) quarter (British) stone (USA) stone (British) ton pennyweight scruple carat gran gamma talent (Dr. Israel) mina (Dr. Israel) shekel (Dr. Israel) bekan (Dr. Israel) gera (Dr. Israel) talent (Ancient Greece) mina (Ancient Greece) tetradrachm (Ancient Greece) didrachm (Ancient Greece) drachma (Ancient Greece) denarius (Ancient Rome) ass (Ancient Rome) codrant (Ancient Rome) lepton ( Dr. Rome) Planck mass atomic mass unit rest mass of an electron rest mass of a muon proton mass neutron mass deuteron mass mass of the Earth mass of the Sun Berkovets pud Pound lot spool share quintal livre

More about mass

General information

Mass is the property of physical bodies to resist acceleration. Mass, unlike weight, does not change depending on the environment and does not depend on the gravitational force of the planet on which this body is located. Mass m determined using Newton's second law, according to the formula: F = ma, Where F- this is strength, and a- acceleration.

Mass and weight

The word “weight” is often used in everyday life when people talk about mass. In physics, weight, in contrast to mass, is a force acting on a body due to the attraction between bodies and planets. Weight can also be calculated using Newton's second law: P= mg, Where m is the mass, and g- acceleration of gravity. This acceleration occurs due to the gravitational force of the planet near which the body is located, and its magnitude also depends on this force. The acceleration of free fall on Earth is 9.80665 meters per second, and on the Moon it is approximately six times less - 1.63 meters per second. Thus, a body weighing one kilogram weighs 9.8 newtons on Earth and 1.63 newtons on the Moon.

Gravitational mass

Gravitational mass shows what gravitational force acts on a body (passive mass) and what gravitational force the body acts on other bodies (active mass). When increasing active gravitational mass body, its force of attraction also increases. It is this force that controls the movement and location of stars, planets and other astronomical objects in the universe. Tides are also caused by the gravitational forces of the Earth and Moon.

With increase passive gravitational mass the force with which the gravitational fields of other bodies act on this body also increases.

Inert mass

Inertial mass is the property of a body to resist movement. It is precisely because a body has mass that a certain force must be applied to move the body from its place or change the direction or speed of its movement. The greater the inertial mass, the greater the force required to achieve this. Mass in Newton's second law is precisely inertial mass. The gravitational and inertial masses are equal in magnitude.

Mass and relativity

According to the theory of relativity, gravitating mass changes the curvature of the space-time continuum. The greater the mass of a body, the stronger the curvature around this body, therefore, near bodies of large mass, such as stars, the trajectory of light rays is bent. This effect in astronomy is called gravitational lenses. On the contrary, far from large astronomical objects (massive stars or their clusters called galaxies), the movement of light rays is linear.

The main postulate of the theory of relativity is the postulate about the finiteness of the speed of propagation of light. Several interesting consequences follow from this. Firstly, one can imagine the existence of objects with such a large mass that the second cosmic velocity of such a body will be equal to the speed of light, i.e. no information from this object will be able to reach the outside world. Such cosmic objects in the general theory of relativity are called “black holes” and their existence has been experimentally proven by scientists. Secondly, when an object moves at near-light speed, its inertial mass increases so much that local time inside the object slows down compared to time. measured by stationary clocks on Earth. This paradox is known as the “twin paradox”: one of them goes into space flight at near-light speed, the other remains on Earth. Upon returning from the flight twenty years later, it turns out that the twin astronaut is biologically younger than his brother!

Units

Kilogram

In the SI system, mass is expressed in kilograms. The kilogram is determined based on the exact numerical value of Planck's constant h, equal to 6.62607015×10⁻³⁴, expressed in J s, which is equal to kg m² s⁻¹, with the second and meter being determined by exact values c and Δ ν Cs. The mass of one liter of water can be approximately considered equal to one kilogram. The derivatives of kilogram, gram (1/1000 of a kilogram) and ton (1000 kilograms) are not SI units, but are widely used.

Electron-volt

Electronvolt is a unit for measuring energy. It is usually used in the theory of relativity, and energy is calculated using the formula E=mc², where E- this is energy, m- mass, and c- speed of light. According to the principle of equivalence of mass and energy, the electronvolt is also a unit of mass in the system of natural units, where c is equal to unity, which means mass equals energy. Electrovolts are mainly used in nuclear and atomic physics.

Atomic mass unit

Atomic mass unit ( A. eat.) is intended for masses of molecules, atoms, and other particles. One a. e.m. is equal to 1/12 the mass of a carbon nuclide atom, ¹²C. This is approximately 1.66 × 10 ⁻²⁷ kilograms.

Slug

Slugs are used primarily in the British Imperial system in Great Britain and some other countries. One slug is equal to the mass of a body that moves with an acceleration of one foot per second per second when a force of one pound-force is applied to it. This is approximately 14.59 kilograms.

Solar mass

Solar mass is a measure of mass used in astronomy to measure stars, planets and galaxies. One solar mass is equal to the mass of the Sun, that is, 2 × 10³⁰ kilograms. The mass of the Earth is approximately 333,000 times less.

Carat

Carats measure the weight of precious stones and metals in jewelry. One carat is equal to 200 milligrams. The name and the size itself are associated with the seeds of the carob tree (in English: carob, pronounced “carob”). One carat used to be equal to the weight of the seed of this tree, and buyers carried their seeds with them to check whether they were being deceived by sellers of precious metals and stones. The weight of a gold coin in Ancient Rome was equal to 24 carob seeds, and therefore carats began to be used to indicate the amount of gold in the alloy. 24 karat is pure gold, 12 karat is half gold alloy, and so on.

Grand

The grain was used as a measure of weight in many countries before the Renaissance. It was based on the weight of grains, mainly barley, and other popular crops at the time. One grain is equal to about 65 milligrams. This is a little more than a quarter of a carat. Until carats became widespread, grains were used in jewelry. This measure of weight is still used to this day to measure the mass of gunpowder, bullets, arrows, and gold foil in dentistry.

Other units of mass

In countries where the metric system is not adopted, the British Imperial system is used. For example, in the UK, USA and Canada, pounds, stones and ounces are widely used. One pound is equal to 453.6 grams. Stones are used mainly only to measure human body weight. One stone is approximately 6.35 kilograms or exactly 14 pounds. Ounces are primarily used in cooking recipes, especially for foods in small portions. One ounce is 1/16 of a pound, or approximately 28.35 grams. In Canada, which formally adopted the metric system in the 1970s, many products are sold in rounded imperial units, such as one pound or 14 fluid ounces, but are labeled with weight or volume in metric units. In English, such a system is called “soft metric” (English). soft metric), in contrast to the “rigid metric” system (eng. hard metric), in which the rounded weight in metric units is indicated on the package. This image shows "soft metric" food packaging with weight in metric units only and volume in both metric and imperial units.

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