Types of font composition. Characteristics of compositions

The most important element in a font composition is always the text - its semantic content and grammatical structure, and this is especially evident in headings. The composition of the font inscription, chosen in accordance with its content, reveals the semantic meaning of the phrase and makes it easier to understand. If a designer tries to squeeze text into a pre-conceived scheme, this inevitably leads to both formal errors and inconsistencies between form and content.

The general shape of the inscription, as a rule, is determined when it is divided into lines. Texts of three or more words, when divided into lines, give several options that are equally correct grammatically, but differ in semantic shades and emphasis on a particular word. For example, the title “New Digital Technologies” can be arranged in four ways (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Basic Heading Breakdown Options

You will notice that words take on different meanings depending on their location in the line. The first option is quite neutral, in the second option the word “new” attracts attention, in the third the word “technology” stands out. These seemingly subtle nuances can be enhanced by the font design, its size or color (Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Emphasis on size and saturation

In some cases, the grammatical correctness of the arrangement of words may conflict with their content. An illustrative example is the title of V. Kataev’s book “The Lonely Sail Is White” (Fig. 3). All four options grammatically have the right to exist, but it is the composition of one line that is semantically more correct, since the first line of the famous poem by M.Yu. Lermontov is taken as the title of the story. The same circumstance forces us to use a font of the same size, saturation and color for all words.

Rice. 3. Header Breakdown Options

For large headings, for example the full title “Tales about Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich,” an even greater number of text grouping options are possible. The composition of the inscription presented at the top of Fig. 4 is clearly not balanced, there is no emphasis on the main thing in this title. After a little modification, the composition becomes more acceptable (Fig. 4, below).

Rice. 4. Large Header Breakdown Option

Hyphenation of words in title elements destroys the integrity of the composition, so they try to avoid them. But in principle, hyphens can be used in fiction with a multi-line title, as well as in scientific and technical literature in polysemantic and compound words. The use of transfers should always be motivated both in semantic and compositional terms.

Skipping punctuation marks (full stop, comma, parentheses, etc.) has long become a tradition when designing title elements. Typically, such a violation of the rules of syntax is always compensated by some compositional techniques: a red line, a change in the font design, a second color, dividing decorations, etc.

The organic nature of letters in a word is not only an aesthetic requirement. It naturally stems from the peculiarities of reading a text, when a person does not read letters, but takes in a whole word or even several words with his gaze.

In some “amateur” guides to creating a font, of which there are now a great many on the Internet, the organization of rhythm in words is considered very limitedly and often comes down to just aligning the spaces between characters. However, rhythm also depends on the style of the letters themselves, so in the process of creating a harmonious title, you often have to try several typefaces before finding the optimal one.

Optical equality of spaces between letters is the most important condition for easy readability of a font of any design or type. The fact is that not all the space between the letters constitutes the interletter space; part of this space belongs to the image of the letter itself and is included in its optical field, the size of which can only be determined visually. This circumstance does not allow us to reduce the process of aligning spaces to mechanical alignment of free spaces between letters, even in simple fonts, not to mention fonts with complex designs. For this reason, an experienced designer does everything by eye when aligning letter spaces.

The size of each space in a word is influenced not only by the configuration of the letters, but also by the serifs, the size of the strokes, and the nature of the intra-letter space. With a certain arrangement of letters, their optical fields do not merge, but are separated by a minimal gap. This arrangement of characters is typical for typesetting text fonts and ensures the best readability of the text (Fig. 5 A) we will call these spaces between letters in a word “normal”. As a result of correctly setting the size of spaces, such unity of the word is achieved that the connection between all letters will be equivalent. Inaccurate placement of letters leads to disruption of these connections.

Changing the normal spacing to make it smaller or larger can cause a drastic reduction in readability. With a slight approach of letters, the serifs of adjacent letters will join and the optical fields of some characters will merge (Fig. 5 b). With further convergence of the letters, the word will become more and more like an ornamental pattern, the degree of decorativeness of which is determined by the font design itself (Fig. 5 V). At the same time, the readability of the font will deteriorate.

As the letters move away from each other and the spaces between them increase, the reverse process will occur - the connection between the letters will weaken. With a slight increase in normal spaces, the connection between letters will remain close, but the average color saturation of the word will decrease, which will affect the overall composition (Fig. 5 G). With a significant increase in spaces, the word breaks up into individual letters, the connection between which is lost.

To maintain a line line with a large discharge, they resort to additional means: underlining the word with a ruler, using a font with long horizontal serifs, placing a sparse line next to a dense line, with an ornament or design (Fig. 5 d).

When using decorative typefaces, the change in the size of spaces is not too noticeable due to the special compositional structure and different reading rhythm of such fonts.

Rice. 5. Dependence of the rhythmic structure on the size of interletter spaces

A very important role in the rhythmic organization of fonts is played by letter extensions or strokes introduced for decorative purposes. Letters with such elements include neighboring characters in their optical field, which gives the font inscription a special solidity (Fig. 6).

Rice. 6. Dust jacket. Artist S. Telingater

It should be noted that the letters of the alphabet have different dynamics, that is, horizontal orientation. Each word consists of a certain combination of characters with different directions, which affects its visual perception (Fig. 7). By choosing a font style, a designer can change and enhance the dynamics of letters in a word, creating one or another rhythmic effect. By combining the direction of each letter with the general direction of the word, and the movement of the word and line with the general direction, you can obtain a wide variety of rhythmic effects.

Rice. 7. Dynamics of letters in the rhythmic structure of a word

Italic fonts with their compositional fluidity have great potential in terms of dynamics. In fonts with a large angle of inclination, the directionality of each individual letter is removed by a single movement of the word in the direction of the line (Fig. 8).

Rice. 8. General dynamics of the word

In straight fonts, the direction of each individual character is more pronounced, but even in this case, the designer will always be able to find a unifying principle for letters in different directions. You can, for example, give the entire word vertical or horizontal movement by changing the proportions of the letters. Combining lines with different directions is one of the ways to create an interesting and expressive composition.

Some letters of fonts that can be classified as humanistic serifs have an interesting feature - their vertical axes do not coincide with the direction of the main strokes in characters with ovals and semi-ovals (“P”, “O”, “Z”, etc.). Typically, such tilts of the vertical axes have little effect on the rhythm in a word, but increasing them can be used as a means of changing the rhythm. Fonts in which letters differ sharply in width also form a peculiar rhythm.

Mastering rhythm makes it possible to influence the reading process, make it slow or fast, smooth or jerky. Rhythm not only organizes the reading process, but also gives the word a characteristic appearance that remains in visual memory for a long time.

The position of the lines in the inscription also affects the perception of the text. Some inscriptions easily acquire a compact and completely complete form, while others look like a mechanical connection of lines that are not interconnected by compositional unity. The designer’s job is precisely to overcome the graphic fragmentation of lines, to emphasize, if necessary, the semantic meaning of some important words, achieving a clear expression of thought. In this case, it is impossible to mechanically apply any rules, but should be based on the specific semantic content and composition of the words in the inscription. The schematic representation of strings in the form of rectangles, which will be discussed below, is created based on real, not imaginary strings.

Strengthening the semantic meaning of words by changing the rhythm of letters and font size is carried out in such a way that the importance of the words in the inscription is immediately visible and interpreted unambiguously (Fig. 9).

Rice. 9. Semantic emphasis by font size

An even sharper division of words by semantic significance is obtained when two or three fonts are used in one inscription. This technique is often used when designing covers. If purely font means do not allow you to make the inscription on the cover expressive, you can resort to other means: drawing, ornament, color, blind embossing, etc.

The distances between words in a line should be such that each word is clearly separated from the others and so that the line does not fall apart into separate parts, thereby losing its integrity. The absolute value of the distance between lines can vary greatly from a continuous outline of the lines to a distance exceeding the height of the lines several times. The rhythmic alternation of lines and line spacing must always be consistent with the content of the inscription.

The fused or very close arrangement of lines to each other often turns the inscription into a kind of ornamental pattern made up of letters. The readability of such inscriptions is ensured by contrast in line lengths, in which the beginning of each line is clearly distinguished (Fig. 10), or by a relatively large font size (Fig. 11).

Rice. 10. Contrast in the length of lines when they are arranged together

Rice. 11. Large font size with continuous lines

If you place the lines of the same inscription at a great distance from each other, they will be read in a slow rhythm. Such compositions are typical for the title set of the 18th and early 19th centuries and correspond to the texts of the ancient titles themselves.

Normal distances between lines can be considered those when, with a clear separation of one line from another, the unity of the inscription as a whole is preserved. In this case, the visual heaviness of the line is completely balanced by the fields surrounding it. Optimal ratios between spacing and line height range from 3:5 to 1:1, and their exact sizes depend on the font design and line length. The superscript and subscript elements of letters have a great influence on the amount of line spacing in the inscription. If words are strongly discharged in two adjacent lines, the distance between them should also increase; otherwise, individual letters will combine into vertical rows, in which the horizontal line of the line will collapse.

Combining fonts of different designs and sharply contrasting sizes into one inscription requires a particularly precise rhythmic structure of the inscription, in which the distances between the lines may differ slightly. The intervals in such inscriptions are determined, as a rule, by eye.

Sometimes in font compositions, conjunctions, prepositions and short words are placed on a separate line, as a result of which it is possible to significantly enhance the semantic meaning of the title, for example, when contrasting antonym words. This technique is resorted to in search of a clear and beautiful form of the inscription, to reduce the size of a line that is too long, in case of strengthening the vertical orientation of the entire composition, etc. However, separating conjunctions and prepositions into a separate line leads to the fact that they begin to interfere with the semantic selection of the main words. Therefore, it is recommended to make them slightly smaller in height than the rows adjacent to them. Reducing the height of short lines and the intervals around them is also necessary in order to bring the main lines closer together in order to avoid the optical break of the inscription into several parts (Fig. 12).

Rice. 12. Reducing the line with a preposition and line spacing at the bottom and top

The choice of method for grouping lines into an inscription is made based on the overall compositional design. Of the two fundamentally different systems for arranging inscriptions - symmetrical and asymmetrical - the first is most widespread, since it gives the inscription a calm, balanced form.

A type of symmetrical composition are inscriptions, the outer outline of which has the form of a rectangle, triangle, circle or other geometric shapes. In such inscriptions we see first of all their external outline and only then comprehend the content. Geometric constructions of lines can be useful when a composition is overloaded with text and visual material, when several elements are combined into one complex pattern.

The symmetrical balance of the inscription can be disrupted by large gaps between words, as well as letter elements extending beyond the lines of the font. To avoid this, the distances between words are reduced to a minimum, and the styles of lowercase and italic letters are chosen so that the callouts are distributed evenly throughout the inscription.

The initial that begins the text also breaks the symmetry of the inscription. And if a small initial is partially balanced by the semantic load that it carries (emphasis on the beginning of the text), then a large initial letter shifts the center of gravity of the lines so much that the entire inscription can be classified as asymmetrical.

Asymmetrical inscriptions themselves do not have the completeness of form that symmetrical texts have, and they receive their compositional completeness through connection with other pictorial elements. Asymmetrical inscriptions with flag and stepped line compositions have the clearest construction principle. Lines that differ little in the number of characters and in rhythm lend themselves especially well to this arrangement.

Font compositions are often used together with graphic elements, such as ornaments. In order to combine all these elements into one whole, it is necessary to understand the general principles of constructing visual and font compositions. We will talk about this in the following articles.

Back forward

Attention! Slide previews are for informational purposes only and may not represent all the features of the presentation. If you are interested in this work, please download the full version.

Target: introducing students to graphic design.

Tasks:

• introduce students to the art of type, expressiveness and imagery of type composition;
• teach the construction of sans serif font;
• develop skills in working with drawing tools (ruler, square, compass);
• form ideas about free font;
• develop components of visual thinking (fantasy, visual-figurative memory, emotional and aesthetic perception of reality);
• to cultivate interest and love for fine arts, emotional responsiveness;
• to cultivate diligence, accuracy, exactingness and respect for work, and increase self-esteem.

Equipment for the teacher:

• presentation. PPT;
• an exhibition of works by students from the collection of the fine arts classroom;
• a marker board with colored markers or a computer graphics program in which the teacher can draw (for example, Compass-3D-LT);
• drawing tools for board.

Equipment for students:

• drawing tools and materials (30 cm ruler, square, compass, pencil);
• drawing paper size A4 (A3 for work in small groups);
• graphic material (colored pencils, markers, pens) and glue sticks, scissors, colored paper, pages of glossy magazines with texts or newspapers;
• oilcloth.

Musical accompaniment: If the teacher wishes, you can do practical work accompanied by calm, instrumental music.

Lesson Plan:

1. Organizing time. Greetings. (1 min.)
2. Checking homework - visually. (2 minutes.)
3. Updating knowledge. State the topic and purpose of the lesson. (2 minutes.)
4. Students' perception of educational material. Learning new material. (10 min.)
5. Practical work. (25 min.)
6. Summing up the lesson. Exhibition of works. The discussion of the results. (3 min.)
7. Reflection on activities in the lesson. (2 minutes.)

DURING THE CLASSES

1. Organizational moment. Greetings

2. Checking homework (visually)

– Let's look at your “Font Collections” prepared for this lesson (students found and cut out letters of different sizes, shapes, styles from old newspapers and magazines, placed them and glued them on A4 format, the compositional solution is free). How do you explain this choice of elements (letters) of the composition?
– Guys, in front of you are glossy magazines and newspapers. What text attracts your attention? Why? (Students assume: large, bright, contrasting, easy to read, etc.)

3. Updating knowledge. Communicating the topic and purpose of the lesson

– We are surrounded by advertising signs and banners everywhere, we read books and magazines. We are attracted to them by their catchy name, distinguished by the size, color and character of the letters. It's all font. The font is the basis for all printed products (advertising, announcements, signs, indexes, booklets, prospectuses, programs, etc.) and is one of the areas of design. And the profession of a designer is one of the professions in demand now.

3. Students’ perception of educational material. Learning new material

Slides 1-2

– The topic of the lesson is “Font composition”. Today we will play with letters. Our task: to get acquainted with the art of type, the expressiveness and imagery of type composition. Today we are designers.

Slides 3-4

– What is a font? This is a graphic drawing of letters and characters that make up a single stylistic and compositional system, a set of symbols of a certain size and design. Font (German) Schrift, from him. schreiben- write).

Slide 5

– What type of font is there? Today, the variety of fonts is constantly updated with new types. We will get acquainted with the main types of font. You see that fonts come with serifs ( serif), sans serif ( grotesque), proportional ( displays characters of different widths), disproportionate, or monospaced, ( displays characters placed on pins of a constant fixed width). Fonts differ in typeface. A group of fonts of different types and sizes, having the same style, uniform style and design, is called a typeface.

Slides 6-7

– How to distinguish fonts?

Main characteristics of fonts:

• style: straight, italic;
• saturation: light, bold, bold (the ratio of the thickness of the stroke to the width of the intraletter space);
• width: normal, narrow, wide, fixed width font;
• size(point) in points (1 point = 1/72 inch);
• contrast;
• distinctiveness;
• readability;
• capacity;

Slides 8-11

– Each font is a specific compositional system that has its own artistic appearance. Let's consider the main characteristics of the font.

Artistic appearance of fonts:

• Decorative.
• Dynamic.
• Elegant. Roman capital, serif, academic fonts. Used for literary and art texts, design of architectural projects, writing texts on memorial plaques.
• Italics. Used for writing texts of certificates of honor, congratulatory addresses, congratulations and invitations.
• Monumental. Chopped poster, slab font and grotesque. Used for writing slogans, posters, banners.
• Free.
• Strict. Used on diagrams, diagrams, graphs, technical and production posters, signs.
• Folklore(Ukrainian, Arabic, etc.).

4. Preparation for artistic activity. Display on the board.

Slides 12-13

– Today we will talk in detail about the monumental (cut) font, its features of style, proportion and artistic characteristics. In this lesson we will look at the concept of “typography” ( Typography is the creative transformation of printed text into a graphic design element; it dispenses with the use of illustrative and figurative graphics, but is performed using text modeling and editing). Typography turns text into bright and original graphic images.

Slide 14

The sans serif font can be divided into three groups: letters consisting of straight elements (G, E, E, N, P, T, Ts, Sh, Shch - the top line of the slide), letters consisting of straight and oblique elements (A , D, ZH, I, J, K, L, M, U, X - middle line), letters with rounded elements (B, V, Z, O, R, S, U, F, CH, Ъ, ы, L, E, Y, I – bottom line).

One of the methods for accurately constructing a font is the modular grid method (3 horizontally and 5 vertically). The module is a constant and basic unit of measurement for a letter, which makes it possible to maintain the basic proportions of letters and characters. Modular grid 3 by 5 used in a group of letters (B, V, E, Z, I, K, L, N, O, P, R, S, T, U, X, CH, L, E, Z) and for a group of letters that are written slightly larger than others 4 by 5(A, M, C, B) and 5 by 5(L, F, F, W, S), modular grid 2.5 to 5(D), modular grid 6 by 5(SCH).
The teacher demonstrates on the blackboard how to construct letters using a scale grid. Students use drawing tools to build letters on checkered pieces of paper.

Once you learn how to construct sans serif letters, you will be able to modify and improve the fonts you have already mastered, or even come up with your own, original fonts!

5. Practical work of students

Slide 15

Exercise 1: build a font composition “My name” in the center of an A4 sheet using drawing tools on a scale grid of 20x20 mm (height of letters 100 mm).

Slide 16-20

Next, create the font composition “My Name” in color with graphic materials, displaying images of the seasons. View photos of nature. Paying attention to color, characteristic features and condition.

Slide 21-23

Criteria:

Slides 24-25

Task 2: build a font composition "Speaking Word" in the center of A4 sheet with drawing tools (chopped font).

First, a word is selected (a noun, a common noun, including from 4 to 6 letters). It is necessary to depict the chosen word so that all letters are “objectified”: the word must be read through the depicted image in the silhouettes of the letters and around them, each letter must carry the semantic load of the entire word. Then the letters of the chopped font are built on an A4 sheet on a 10x10 mm scale grid, with a gap of 10 or 20 mm between the letters, depending on the number of letters in the word. Then the work is done with graphic materials, which need to convey the texture and image of the image. The image should be bright, colorful, textured.

Slides 26-31

Examples of student work on this topic.

Criteria: originality, image recognition, color scheme, accuracy.

Slide 32

Task 3: creating a font composition from initials (option 1).

Initials are the first letters of the last name, first name, patronymic (3 letters). Work begins with exploratory sketches of the composition (contact of letters at a point, in a line, letter within a letter). Students complete 5 versions of compositions no larger than 20x20 mm in size on A4 format on the left with a simple pencil. The most successful sketch is selected by the teacher, and then developed by the student on the same sheet on the right with a size of at least 100x100 mm in color using graphic materials (option 1) or using the appliqué technique (option 2). The main thing in your work is to achieve a reflection of your style, your interests and character.

Slides 33-35

Examples of student work on this topic.

Criteria: originality, image recognition, color scheme, accuracy.

Slide 36

Task 3: creating a font composition from initials (option 2).

Slides 37-39

Examples of student work on this topic.

Criteria: originality, image recognition, color scheme, accuracy.

Slide 40

Task 4: create a font composition "Drawn letters (free font)" in the center of A4 sheet.

– We draw an object with letters. You need to start working with a contour drawing of an object or animal. Then you need to write letter by letter into this object so that there are as few spaces between them as possible. The letters can be of different heights and widths, configurations, but still made in the same style. Then we remove the outline of the image. Next, we draw the composition with color. Here it is necessary to convey the texture and image of an object or animal as accurately as possible, so that at first glance the whole image is perceived, and then the letters are read.

Slides 41-43

– What animals do you know? What is the difference between birds and animals, insects and fish, etc.? Notice the silhouette of the various animals.

Slides 44-47

Examples of student work on this topic.

Criteria: originality, image recognition, color scheme, accuracy.

Slide 48

Task 5: “Cat and Dog Exhibition” – creating an image of animals using the appliqué technique from letters cut from old newspapers and magazines along the contour. The work is performed in small groups (2 people each). Before completing the task, the teacher talks with the students about the characteristic features of the shape of the head, body, tail, etc. cats and dogs. You can invite students to look at photographs of animals.

Slides 49-52

Examples of student work on this topic.

Criteria: originality, image recognition, color scheme, accuracy.

Slides 53-54

Task 6: “City of letters. Architectural monuments in letters" – creating an image of a world-famous architectural monument using the applique technique of letters cut along the contour from newspapers and magazines. The work is performed in small groups (2 people each) or individually.

Slides 55-69

– Let’s look at architectural monuments from different eras. Pay attention to silhouettes, proportions of buildings, sheet layout, details and architectural structures.

Slides 70-71

– Look at the options for completing the task (the teacher’s work is demonstrated).

Slides 72-83

Examples of student work on this topic.

Criteria: originality, image recognition, color scheme, accuracy.

6. Summing up the lesson

Exhibition of works. The discussion of the results

7. Reflection on activities in the lesson

– What new things have we learned today (building a chain of meaning, comparing the methods and methods of work used by others with our own)? What concepts and terms did you remember (typography, monumental sans and free hand-drawn fonts, modular grid, etc.? What did you learn?

– Tasks 1-3, 6 are offered to 7th grade students (program “Fine Arts. Design and Architecture in Human Life” under the direction of B.M. Nemensky).
– To complete tasks 4-6, the lesson should begin with an introduction to the various types and characteristics of fonts (slides 1-11), skip the section on constructing a font (slide 12-35), then the teacher moves on to explaining the tasks and viewing illustrative material with students on topic of the task (slides 40-69).
– Illustrations on slides 16-19, 41-43, 48 can be stretched to fill the entire screen.
– Changing slides in the presentation is automatic.

Font compositions.

Type compositions are constantly used in environmental design. These are memorial plaques, signs, inscriptions on packaging and labels of industrial goods, etc. Inscriptions have not only informational value, but also create the aesthetic quality of the human environment.

Depending on its purpose, the font can be elegant or massive, strict or picturesque. The main aesthetic criteria for choosing a particular font are the harmony of its proportions, the beauty of the design of each letter, simplicity and clarity, clarity and proportionality. In a font, all letters should be harmoniously combined with each other in any possible combinations, be beautiful and easy to read.

Even at the dawn of his development, man sought to record and convey certain information using type, to reflect historical events and his attitude towards them. This was the reason for the emergence of object and picture writing. Gradually, to speed up the writing process, symbols appeared. This type of writing is called figurative-symbolic.

The earliest example of figurative and symbolic writing is cuneiform, created in the 4th millennium BC. e. ancient people - the Sumerians. It also includes Chinese and ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs. Ancient rulers immortalized in stone their names and deeds, victories over enemies, significant events in political life. Stone, the only durable material at that time, served as a carrier of information.

Many interesting examples of the use of type in architecture can be seen in the art and architecture of Ancient Egypt. Egyptian hieroglyphic writing arose in the fourth millennium BC. It contained up to 600 images of objects, people, birds, and animals. Egyptian craftsmen very skillfully, taking into account the conditions of perception and lighting of the text, carved their reliefs on obelisks, pylons and columns of temples.

The most ancient alphabet was created on the basis of Egyptian hieroglyphs. An alphabet, or alphabet, is a set of signs adopted to designate speech sounds in the written system of a language and arranged in a certain order. The characters of the alphabet are called letters. An alphabet whose letters have a common pattern in their designs is called a font. The font, as a specific embodiment of the alphabet, is directly related to the tools and materials with which writing is carried out and is determined by the material culture of society and its aesthetic norms, as a result of which the font constantly undergoes noticeable changes in the course of historical development.

Around the 10th century BC. e. The Greeks created their own alphabet and achieved great perfection in writing texts. They are found not only on tombs, but also in sanctuaries and even in private homes. Unlike the inscriptions of Ancient Egypt, where the pharaoh was repeatedly remembered and glorified, here the inscriptions play a different, more informational role.

The Greeks made demands on the inscription of both aesthetic and functional nature, taking into account the conditions of perception of the text.

The Greek colonies in Italy transferred their writing there. On its basis, various versions of the Latin alphabet were created. Greek letters on Italian soil evolved over time, and gradually acquired such styles that we call Latin, not Greek writing.

If Greek inscriptions consisted of carved letters of the same thickness, then in Latin inscriptions the letters have different thicknesses for the main and auxiliary strokes, and there are also serifs, the appearance of which was determined by the specifics of carving letters on stone. These serifs, having appeared purely technologically, were later artistically played out and turned into exquisite forms.

With the advent of Christianity, early Christian gravestone inscriptions with the name of the deceased also appeared. Sometimes symbols of the Christian faith were depicted nearby: a fish, a dove, an anchor, a palm or olive branch. The inscriptions become more wordy as they go together. From the 4th century Rounded letterforms appear in Christian inscriptions.

In the inscriptions of the early Middle Ages, to a greater or lesser extent, the ancient form is preserved, which outwardly becomes more complex. In Romanesque and Gothic architecture, we see font compositions on portals and in the interiors of temples, on tombstones, and sarcophagi.

During the Renaissance, theoretical treatises on the construction of type appeared. Dürer explores the patterns of placement of type compositions on buildings. Basically, in the use of fonts in architecture, ancient images are copied.

In Baroque architecture, font compositions were in tune with the times. They acquired pretentiousness and decorative complexity. All kinds of monograms on the portals of temples and public buildings, decorative metal gates, tombstones and memorial plaques adorned the already plastically complex architecture.

By the middle of the 18th century. There is a transition to classical serif in font compositions on buildings and structures. At the beginning of the 19th century, a new, so-called Egyptian font (slab) appeared, which had the same thickness of all lines and serifs of letters. The proportions of the letters and the placement of the serifs are the same as the serif font. The grotesque (chopped) font, like the Egyptian one, arose in England at the beginning of the 19th century. The structure of grotesque letters is similar to the serif font. In sans serif, as in Egyptian script, all letter strokes are of the same thickness. The difference between sans serif and other fonts is the absence of serifs.

Under the influence of decorative art at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, fonts with unique designs appeared, consonant with the Art Nouveau style that dominated at that time. Examples of this font were also on buildings. Among the floral ornaments were font inserts, monograms, and monograms, usually using the glaze technique.

The font was used very widely in Russian architecture - in all kinds of mortgages and memorial plaques on the walls of ancient churches, inscriptions on public buildings, steles, obelisks, monuments, and tombstones. They were made in stone, lined with tiles, made in copper and gilded, and painted in interiors. The alphabets that became the basis of Slavic writing are called Glagolitic and Cyrillic.

At the end of the XIV-XV centuries. cursive writing and ligature appear. Elm is a decorative letter, where each letter is made into an element of decoration. The most important event of the Peter the Great era (1708) was the creation of a civil font. Peter I himself took an active part in its creation. The shape of Russian letters was changed based on the Latin alphabet. The pinnacle of Russian font art can be considered the font of Russian classicism. The fonts of that time (Elizabethan, Alexander and Academic) had a huge influence on modern letter designs.

The font most corresponding to the applied art and architecture of the constructivists of the 20s of the XX century turned out to be a sans serif font. In the 40-50s, the architectural style changed, now it was more consistent with fonts based on the classics. Therefore, the inscriptions of metro stations built in the 40-50s are made on the basis of the antique, in its various variants.

In the 80s, inscriptions were mostly made on the basis of sans serif, sans serif and skeletal sans serif (narrow architectural font). Modern fonts are divided by reproduction technique: handwritten, drawn, engraved, typographic. By letter style: italic, oblique, normal, narrow, wide, light, bold and bold. Fonts of the same style are combined into one typeface. Each typeface has its own name: academic, Romanesque, grotesque, etc.

With all the variety of structures on which inscriptions are written, the material for making the inscription is quite limited. This refers to architectural inscriptions made in durable materials. These are inscriptions in concrete with the inclusion of other materials and processed in various ways. Basically, these are either embedded letters or letters protruding from the surface of the walls. The outlines of letters on concrete are perceived due to chiaroscuro. If the letters are made in granite or marble, the character of the letters is the same as in concrete, but the letters are almost entirely inset, the depth of the inset is less, since the perception of the font is not only due to chiaroscuro, but also due to the difference in textures (polished, matte, embossed surfaces).

It is practiced to make fonts from forged copper, forged aluminum, cast bronze, and cast glass. There are many examples of combined inscriptions. There are a number of specific problems and features in the use of type in architecture. To ensure a synthesis of type and architecture, it is necessary to take into account the nature of the building itself and the role and nature of the inscription on this building, its emotional and functional role, as well as the scale of the text and the building, the conditions for perceiving the text from different points, the lighting conditions of the text, its readability and the composition of the inscription itself on

this building.

Some general rules for working on font compositions

When working on font compositions, you should follow several rules:

Much attention should be paid to the overall composition of the inscription;

Within one text, the font must be built according to one principle;

When choosing the compositional structure of the entire inscription, it is advisable to break the text into parts according to meaning and identify those groups of words that carry the greatest semantic load. These words can be done in a larger size;

The distance between lines can be different, but it cannot be too large, for example exceeding double the height of the letters, which could destroy the unity of the text;

Too little spacing between lines is also undesirable; it will make the text difficult to read.

The arrangement of lines can be symmetrical or asymmetrical.

The distance between letters depends on the selected overall composition of the text. If the composition includes an ornament along with the text, then it is necessary to maintain the stylistic unity of the font and the ornament.

You need to start working on the text by determining its composition. First you need to calculate the size of the inscription in length and width. The total length of the text is the sum of the width of the letters, the spacing between them and the spacing between words. The interval between words is usually taken equal to the distance between two letters plus the letter itself. If in the typeface the letters “O” and “C” have round outlines, then they are located at different distances from, for example, letters with inclined side outlines - “A”, “L”, “I”, etc. and letters with a rectangular outline - “N”, “P”. The interval between the letters “S” and “I” or “O” and “L” is deliberately reduced, and then the integrity of the perception of the word is preserved. Thus, in most fonts, the construction of spacing between letters implies their variability.

A special group consists of the so-called hand-drawn fonts. They are distinguished by individuality and a wide variety of shapes. Hand-drawn fonts include the fonts of ancient civilizations, but even today the creation of such fonts is of interest to many type designers.

If the letters have a rectangular outline, as in the “grotesque” artistic font (a simplified form of which is the “narrow architectural font”), then for the convenience of calculating the length of the inscription, you can use the formula:

A = I - M/M - 1, where A is the spacing between letters, I is the length of the line, N is the total length of all letters in the line without taking into account the spacing between them, and N is the number of spacings between letters. With this calculation, you can set the condition that the space between words is equal to one letter and two spaces between letters in the word.

Ways to Use Font in a Layout

The production of font compositions using layout techniques allows us to perceive letters as elements of a three-dimensional composition. You need to start working on the text by defining a compositional scheme. Then the inscription needs to be calculated in length and height.

In layout, the variety of compositional tasks required makes it necessary to use different fonts. There are many ways to use font in a layout, more or less labor intensive. Based on the manufacturing technique, they can be divided into two large groups - volumetric and flat.

More complete material on the topic “Font in Layout” can be read in the manual “Layout”.

A font composition is a harmoniously interconnected set of letters, blocks of text and other participants in the text space that make up the composition.

The most obvious examples of font compositions in this case are memorial plaques, tombstones, memorial and entrance signs. However, in these artistic objects the font is not always present, since there are not only symbolic objects, but also informational ones, namely indications of personalities, events, dates and geographical points.

Incorporating an image into a font composition is often a difficult task in calligraphy due to various features. One of these features is the fact that the font composition is not only considered as a whole, but also read in a certain order. It is common for humans to read from top to bottom and from left to right, line by line.

It is important to remember that within the framework of any project, the basis of which is not only fonts, but also graphic images, type designs, together with the other elements of the composition, must be perceived as a single whole. Font designs should fit harmoniously into the structure of the solution as a whole, thereby revealing the overall idea of ​​the project. Fonts and images shouldn't live on their own. The compositional unity of image and type in a type composition is achieved by subordinating the general spatial rhythm, close to plastic principles. Signs of artistic style, artistic features of a particular time are equally manifested in font styles and designs. The compositional unity of type and image can be based not only on their convergence, but also on meaningful, skillfully applied contrast, the opposition of volume and plane, statics and dynamics, etc.

To achieve a successful result, you should not create elements that are identical in mass. The more obvious the difference and contrast of sizes in a composition, the more interesting the composition as a whole is. Also, when developing a particular project, certain priorities can be set that relate directly to the elements of the font composition. Based on these priorities, text blocks can be expressed more clearly than graphic elements, and vice versa - text can be an addition to graphics, but purely font compositions are also possible.

One of the main mistakes when working on such a task can be the initial creation of an image, after which the selection of a font begins, which is often not the most successful. In this case, the font will seem out of place, and harmonization of elements will not be achieved. Therefore, work on a composition that includes graphic and font elements must be started and carried out simultaneously in relation to all elements. The image and font must necessarily be in historical subordination and correspond to the style of a particular era.

It is also necessary to keep in mind that, for all its historical character, the composition serves the present and should speak in a modern language. Those. features of modernity must inevitably be present in the work. There is another sign that helps to find a solution to the combination of font and image - this is the large-scale unity of the composition.

Already at the first stage of work, there should be an idea of ​​what dominates the composition - font or graphic elements. How they will relate to each other and what this relationship will emotionally express. The unity of the font and image elements is the key to creating a successful composition.

Types of font composition. Characteristics of compositions.

Font composition can be of different types:

1. Symmetrical;

2. Block;

3. Flag.

1. Symmetrical composition - the vertical axis of symmetry passes through the middle of the inscription and divides it into two equal parts - left and right. For small text, it is better to use the “golden ratio”, when the text is divided into two halves, of which the upper one is related to the lower one as 5:8. If the text is large in volume, then the main line rises relatively high. This design allows you to free up the bottom of the poster for the remaining text.

2. Block composition - all lines of text fit into a rectangle. In this case, the interletter clearance is increased; letters in short words are written with space to the width of the font strip. However, increasing the distance between letters too much can lead to disruption of the rhythmic structure of the font inscription. Block composition finds application in a type poster. It is useful when the lines have approximately the same number of letters. If the lines are very different in length and contain conjunctions and prepositions that make it difficult to balance the line, then it is not possible to achieve good results in block composition.

The block composition can be symmetrical (if there is one block) and asymmetrical (if there are several blocks).

3. F lagcomposition - the text is shifted to the side: either to the left or to the right of the vertical axis. The marking of letters and lines begins from this vertical line. The flag scheme allows you to place all lines on the same line from the edge of the sheet. This composition is dynamic (asymmetrical) in nature. Sometimes a flag text composition is used, arranged in such a way that it is not dynamic, but static in nature.

Photo parameters for printing.

Color model SMYK used in publications intended for print.

The main color components of this model:

Cyan- blue, Magenta - purple, Yellow - yellow, Key color - the key color, which is usually used as black.

A color model is a way of describing color.

Permission no less than 300 dpi. If the quality is poor, the photo may be larger (400 dpi, 600 dpi), but this makes the file heavier.

Size 100% (can be increased, but no more than 15% without loss of quality).

Formats raster photo images ( TIFF, EPS, Jpg ).

1. What is sgraffito? Features of technology.

Sgraffito (from Italian sgraffito or graffito - scratched).

Preparatory work for the sgraffito technique. Plastering the wall, applying spray and primer. Features of plastering various walls (brick (lime mortars), concrete (lime-cement mortars), different methods of leveling and maintaining the moisture content of the applied mortar). 1

Application of decorative compositions. The thickness of the bottom layer is 7-8 cm, the next one is smaller in size 6 cm, then 5 cm, etc. The last color layer is 2 cm. White is simply whitened with water-based paint, size approximately 2 mm. Grind and level surfaces. The sequence and features of applying layers (from the darkest layer to pure white, drying each layer until it sets easily). It is possible to use templates.

Decorative compositions. Cement mortar, fillers (fine chips, quartz sand, crushed red brick powder, stone powder, etc.). Sand grain size - from 0.1 to 0.5 mm. For the top layers even less. To give color to the layers, pigments are added to the solution.

Finishing of color drawings. Scratching layers. Applying decor. Tools used (chisels, stacks, scrapers, spoons, teeth, mowers). Sharpen the tools as they become dull.

What is a font? Types of writing.

Word "font" - of German origin and translated means - writing, lettering.

Font is an alphabet in which the image of letters, numbers and other written characters has a general pattern of construction and a single style. In other words, a font is a graphic form of a particular writing system. It is impossible to imagine modern design art without the use of type. The more diverse its use, the more attention must be paid to its quality, which is impossible without a serious study of its structure.

The history of the emergence of writing goes back to ancient times.

From the history of world writing, four types of writing are known:

1) pictographic – in the form of rock paintings among primitive people;

2) ideographic - writing using ideograms rather than letters. One written sign (sun, moon, bird) denoted an entire concept, a word. It was common in Egypt and China.

3) syllabic - a letter in which syllables were indicated by signs. The ancient Egyptians wrote in syllabics on papyrus. It was very bulky. Types of this writing existed for many centuries among the peoples of the Ancient East and in the countries of East Asia - Japan, China, Korea.

4) letter-sound – appeared in the second millennium BC. In it, the signs meant individual sounds (phonemes).

A business card as an attribute of a company’s corporate identity. Types of business cards. Business card attributes. Business card size.

One of the main elements of a business card is the logo.

Types of business cards

1. Personal;

2. Business;

Corporate.

Business card includes:

1. Owner's name;

2. Company (usually with a logo);

3. Contact information (address, telephone number and/or email address, website address).

Business card size:

The size of the business card is standard, determined by the size of the business card holder.

Х85(90) mm

To the size of 50x90 mm, additional mm are added for trimming (5 mm each from the sides and top). Divide in half and get 2.5 mm on each side (top, bottom, left and right).

Font size for business cards:

no less 6-8 points depending on the font.

1. Materials and tools used for mosaic wall decoration . Mosaic base.

Materials for mosaics: Stone (ornamental stone, granite, marble, slate, pebbles). Glass (smalt, colored glass mosaic, round colored glass, stained glass, transparent glass). Ceramics (ceramic tiles, fragments of ceramic ware, terracotta). 1

Preparing materials for mosaics. Cutting smalt with a special guillotine. Cutting ceramic tiles (glass cutter, manual tile cutter, tile cutter). Cutting glass with a glass cutter.

Adhesives and compositions for gluing mosaics. Temporary adhesives (paste, wallpaper glue) for the reverse method of setting. Permanent adhesives: There are three main types (acrylic mixtures, cement-based mixtures, epoxy resin). These adhesives serve different purposes.

Content: Mosaic Tools (glass cutter, tile cutter, manual tile cutter, working pliers, wire cutters, hammer and handbrake, mosaic tongs, glass pliers, square, metal ruler, smoothers, graters). How to use them. Additional tools (paper, tracing paper, pencils, markers, gouache paints, various containers).

Mosaic base(concrete or brick wall, plywood, chipboard, flat slate).

Safety precautions when making mosaics. Use special glasses to avoid getting shrapnel in your eyes. Use of protective gloves. Use of protective clothing. Use of protective materials to cover the work area.

1. Leaflet;

2 Poster;

3. Calendar;

4. Booklet;

Multi-page editions:

1. Catalog - a bound or bound printed publication containing a systematic list of a large number of goods, usually illustrated with photographs of the goods;

2. Avenue - a bound or bound printed publication informing about a specific product or group of products or, in general, about a company;

3. Book;

4. Directory;

Periodicals:

1. Newspaper;

2. Magazine;

3. Corporate edition .

Each edge of the leaflet must have margins necessary for cutting the circulation, since during this process the knife may deviate in each direction by 2.5 mm.

The most important elements of the layout, such as logo, phone numbers, addresses, etc., must be at least 5 mm away from the cutting line.

An element adjacent directly to the cut line, which is called “printing on the fly”, requires an extension of this element beyond the cut line by 3 mm. The text is converted to curves.

Colorfulness of leaflets:

4+0(full printing on 1st side)

4+4 (full printing on 2 sides)

1+0(printed in black on 1st side)

1+1 (printed in black on 2 sides) and any other at your request

Paper for printing leaflets:

Coated medium densities 125-170 g/sq.m

Thin coated 90-115 g/sq.m

Dense coating 200-300 g/sq.m

Offset 80 g/sq.m and any other types of papers upon request

Additional processing of leaflets:

solid VDUF and offset varnish; selective UV varnish; lamination; foil stamping; cutting down

Cutting paper and cardboard

Tools:

scissors, knife-cutter, cutting board, metal rulers of different sizes, graphite pencil.

Cutting paper and cardboard in straight lines with a knife-cutter:

applying cutting marks with a graphite pencil;

placing the paper face down on the cutting board;

It is possible to press the ruler downwards with your left hand more strongly so that it cannot move from its place during work;

The knife handle should be held on top with four fingers. The fifth, index finger should lie on the butt of the blade to press on the knife during operation;

During operation, the blade of the knife should fit snugly against the working edge of the ruler, i.e., move in a plane perpendicular to the plane of the scoring board. When cutting paper, the axis of the knife should be inclined to the cutting line and make an angle of 35-45° with it.

Cutting paper and cardboard along curved contours with scissors:

applying cutting marks with a graphite pencil, using templates and patterns (if necessary);

cutting in a small area;

the ends of the scissors are spread wide;

the part to be cut is located to the left of the scissors, and the cutting line runs along the right side of the marking line drawn with a pencil;

Sheets of paper should be fastened along the edges with paper clips or pins so that they do not move.

Folding paper when cutting with scissors:

in the mass production of small-sized parts with complex curved outlines from paper, the paper is folded, depending on its density, into four, eight or more layers, cutting is done according to pencil markings applied on the top sheet;

if the part has an axis of symmetry, then fold the paper in half, draw half of the part on it so that about Gluing the paper.

Rules for gluing paper:

You should always apply glue to the part of the product that is being glued, and not the part that is being glued to;

grease with glue and hold for a while so that the paper gets wet and swells;

when gluing two parts made of paper or cardboard, apply glue to thinner material;

when joining sheets of paper of the same quality “overlapping”, lubricate both edges with glue;

when spreading glue on paper, it must be placed on a sheet of unnecessary paper;

Hold the sheet or part to be spread with the ends of the fingers of your left hand so that they do not move from their place.

Method of smearing narrow strips “from the board” with glue. The symmetry coincides with the fold line, cut and straighten.

Gluing parts:

After placing the part coated with glue in the place of gluing, cover it with a clean sheet of paper and rub the entire surface of the part with a soft, clean cloth or the edge of your palm from the middle to the edges in the direction of the fibers, put it under a press until gluing is completed.

The design of the corporate booklet, text, illustrations in a concise and accessible form should present the contents of the publication to the reader.

Elements of corporate design of the booklet: logo; style; font.

Stages of creating a booklet: development of layout design; processing of illustrations; layout; preparation for printing.

Additional finishing operations when printing a booklet:

UV varnishing; felling; foil stamping; blind; convection; printing with pantone inks.

The style of developing a booklet design can be made both in a classic design and in an original one using various printing materials.

Booklets are printed on coated or offset paper from a sheet of A4 (297x210 mm) or A3 (420x297 mm) format, with 1, 2 or more folds.

Full color printing on both sides (4+4). The paper thickness for printing a booklet can be selected from 115 to 300 g/m. For booklets intended for special occasions, thick paper or cardboard is used using cutting and die-cutting.

Booklet printing methods:

offset;

Digital.

When producing booklets using the offset method, the best printing quality is ensured. The circulation can be different (from 100 pieces, offset from 200 pieces).

Leaflet- A4 sheet with two folds.

The concept of ornament.

Ornament(Latin ornemantum - decoration) - a pattern based on repetition and alternation of its constituent elements. Intended for decorating various objects (utensils, tools and weapons, textiles, furniture, books, etc.), architectural structures, works of applied art.

Associated with the surface on which it decorates, the ornament reveals or accentuates the architectonics of the object on which it is applied.

The ornament consists of a background and a motif.

Background- the surface of the material on which the ornament is made.

Motive- a repeatedly repeating pattern.

Dependence of the nature of the ornament on the material and technique of execution.

Planar ornament - decoration on a flat or curved surface, made using various lines, including color.

Relief or convex ornament - decorations made on wood, bone, stone, metal using special processing. The depth of the relief depends on the size of the area being designed, the saturation of the pattern and lighting.

Ornaments are divided according to patterns of construction:

ribbon (friezes, borders, borders, etc.);

closed (inscribed in the shape of a circle, square, rectangle, triangle);

mesh (filling the surface with a continuous pattern).

Types of ornaments:

Geometric (consisting of geometric shapes);

Floral (consisting of stylized plants);

Zoomorphic (consisting of stylized animals);

Anthropomorphic (consisting of male and female stylized figures or individual parts of the human body).

Methods for constructing an ornament:

turn in the other direction;

movement along the vertical axis;

movement along the horizontal axis;

mirror symmetry;

construction using a grid (square shape, triangular shape, diamond shape, rectangular shape).

Outdoor advertising- advertising that is placed on special temporary and/or permanent structures located in open areas, as well as on the external surfaces of buildings, structures, on elements of street equipment, above the carriageway of streets and roads or on them themselves, as well as at gas stations.

Designed for drivers, vehicle passengers, and pedestrians. Has a reminiscent character.

illuminated signs;

information boards (billboards, firewalls, city formats, trivizhens, pillars (arched and rectangular);

electrified (or gas-lit) panel with stationary or running inscriptions (“traveling wave”);

spatial structures for placing posters in several planes;

inscriptions in the sky (balloons, airships);

Ticket No. 11

Water-soluble paints.

Water-soluble paints- paints that are highly soluble in water.

Water-soluble paints include: watercolor , gouache , tempera , water-based , acrylic .

Watercolor- water-based adhesive paint.

Composition of watercolor paints:

Binders (gum, dextrin, glycerin, honey, sugar).

They are produced dry in tiles, semi-raw in cuvettes, jars and semi-liquid in tubes.

The surface for working with watercolors is paper (dry and wet).

The main qualities are transparency, color purity, richness of tonal solutions.

Combines with white, gouache, pastel, tempera, ink, bronze and other materials.

Gouache- water-based adhesive paint.

Composition of gouache paints:

Binders (gum arabic, dextrin, fruit gum);

Filler: colored pigments, zinc white;

Emollients and preservatives (glycerin oil);

Surfactant (animal bile);

Antiseptic (phenol);

Plasticizer (glycerin).

Surface for work: paper, cardboard, fiberboard, fabric, pre-glued.

The paint is opaque, dense, dries and becomes lighter and acquires a matte velvety surface.

Tempera- adhesive paint.

Composition of tempera paints:

Binder (casein or egg emulsion).

Diluted with water and oil, it does not dissolve later.

Surface to work on:

cardboard, canvas with white primer or paper with pre-sizing, other primed surfaces (wood, concrete, etc.).

Tempera strokes have a matte, dense, velvety, soft surface.

Acrylic is a synthetic paint based on acrylic acid.

Composition of tempera paints:

Binder (acrylic polymer emulsion (consists of polyacrylics and polymethacrylics).

Filler (color pigments).

Stabilizers (coalescent substances).

Application of acrylic paints:

can be used for almost any job.

Surface for working with acrylic:

can be used to work on different surfaces (paper, cardboard, canvas, wood, metal, fabric, porcelain, glass), but you must be guided by the type of surface to be painted, and use a special paint suitable for these surfaces.

When painting and painting walls, consider the location of the room (indoor, outdoor). Diluted with water, it does not dissolve later. Dries very quickly.

When dry, it gives a durable layer that resembles plastic or rubber. The tone darkens a little. Disadvantages include roughness and low (lower than gouache and oil) coverage. It is difficult to paint details with acrylic.

Water-based paint.

It is diluted with water and does not mix with other types of paints and solvents. Drying time at 20C is 24 hours.

Designed for painting and priming fiberboard, chipboard, panels, plasterboard, and other dry plastered surfaces.

Design and printing of calendars.

The design of the calendar depends on its type. They differ in shape, format (A4, A3, A5, etc.), number of sheets, creasing (2, 3, 4 creasing, etc.), type and density of paper.

Post-printing of calendars:

embossing, figured cutting. The quarterly calendar header or pocket calendar can be laminated with a glossy or matte laminate.

Ticket No. 14

Preparation of sketches for design work.

Definition of the concept sketch.

Sketch(from French - “esqusse”) - a preliminary sketch that captures the artist’s plan. Sketch is the main auxiliary tool.

Visualization of ideas(transferring the idea to paper). Rough sketches.

Brainstorm- quickly write down all your thoughts on paper. Possible scale of sketches is 1:3 or 1:2.

Collecting material for a sketch, researching the material - can be used in any work: illustration style for a series of books, exhibition stand plan, corporate logos, photograph style for an advertising company.

Collection of material- collect various objects associated with the project (colors, characteristic letter shapes, textures or proportions - any types of graphics from books, magazines and newspapers, photos of similar projects). Objects can be mounted on a plug panel or glued to an A1 sheet of cardboard to see them together for comparison and association.

Sketches are: graphic; picturesque.

Types of sketches:

fore-sketch;

creative sketch;

Working sketch (cardboard).

Airbrush.

What does the airbrush consist of: body, paint tray, air/paint pedal, nozzle, nozzle protection, needle, needle pressure/stroke regulators, air supply point. The working principle of an airbrush. Types of airbrushes: single action - external and internal mixing, external mixing without a needle, external mixing with a fixed needle and a movable nozzle; double-acting - with interdependent flow control, independent double-acting. Operating the airbrush (assembling/disassembling the airbrush, storing the airbrush, precautions, cleaning, maintenance). Possible errors in the operation of the instrument, methods for adjusting and eliminating errors.

Paints:

Automotive (metallic, xyrallic, fluorescent, chameleon).