Philip 2 Spanish short biography. King of Spain Philip II: brief biography and reign

(as Philip I), only son of Emperor Charles V and Isabella of Portugal. Born in Valladolid on May 21, 1527.

Visiting his future possessions in Italy (1548), the Netherlands (1549) and Germany (1550), Philip felt the hostile attitude of his future subjects, and he, apparently, was uncomfortable with alien ideas and customs. Mutual misunderstanding was aggravated by the fact that Philip did not speak fluently in any language other than Castilian.

In 1554, Philip married a second marriage to the English Queen Mary Tudor in Great Britain, however, without waiting for an heir, he left England a little over a year later. The transition of the possessions of Charles to Philip took place gradually. In 1540, his father granted him the Duchy of Milan, and in 1554, on the occasion of his marriage to Mary, he received the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. When Charles began to resign, Philip received at first, on October 25, 1555, the Netherlands, and on January 16, 1556, Spain itself with all overseas possessions in America and North Africa. Soon he got the area of ​​Franche-Comté.

Strengthening absolute power, Philip reluctantly delegated his powers and preferred written communications to live communication with subordinates. He bloated the bureaucracy beyond measure and created a system of administration so intricate that it was unable to work effectively. Philip deprived Aragon, Castile, Catalonia of a significant part of medieval liberties, pursued a confiscation policy, constantly increased taxes, and in 1557, 1575 and 1598 declared bankruptcy of the treasury. Philip placed all his foreign and domestic policy at the service of the Catholic faith. Possessed by religious fanaticism, he intervened in the religious wars in France, unleashed monstrous persecution of Protestants in the Netherlands (where he sent the infamous Duke of Alba) and Moriscos in Spain, deporting the latter to the badlands inland (1558-1570), and sent the Invincible Armada to return Great Britain to the fold of Catholicism and punish Queen Elizabeth for the execution of Mary Stuart.

Philip strongly supported the Inquisition, which during his reign reached its greatest power in Spain ( see also INQUISITION). However, Philip did not become a servant of the Pope. He defeated the papal troops, exerted a decisive influence through his representatives on the decisions of the Council of Trent (1562-1563) and constantly made efforts to put his protege on the papal throne. Despite major defeats in the fight against the Protestants, Philip conducted a number of successful military campaigns. So, he defeated the Turks in Malta (1565) and at Lepanto (1571) and captured Portugal (1580-1581).

A man of the most severe self-discipline, he treated his loved ones with the same strictness, which led to the death of the unfortunate Don Carlos, his unbalanced eldest son. Philip showed high fortitude during his terminal illness. Philip died of cancer on September 13, 1598 in Escorial, the palace and tomb of the Spanish monarchs, which he himself built near Madrid. He was succeeded on the Spanish throne by a son by Anna's fourth wife, Philip III (Philip II as King of Portugal).

Charles V was brought up in the Spanish spirit. He was fluent only in the Castilian dialect and later, after becoming king, he never left Spain during all the years of his reign. In general, the Infante received a good education and, even before accession to the throne, managed to gain considerable life and political experience. Charles V early married his heir to Princess Mary of Portugal (1527-1545), who was Philip's cousin. But Mary died very young during childbirth. Nine years later, in 1554, Philip married a second time. His new wife was the English Queen Mary I Tudor (1516-1558). The conclusion of this marriage opened up the prospect of a dynastic union between Spain and England. With the assistance of her husband, Mary Tudor pursued a policy of terror in England against the supporters of the Reformation. When Mary Tudor died in 1558, the English Parliament refused to recognize Philip's claim to the crown of England. In 1556, Charles V decided to retire from public affairs and hand over his vast estates to his heirs. As a result of the division of the Habsburg possessions, Philip inherited Spain with its possessions in Italy (the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Sardinia, Milan), in Africa and overseas, as well as the Netherlands, Franche-Comte and Charolais (Burgundy).

A fanatical champion of Catholicism, Philip II considered the main task of his reign to be the fight against the enemies of the Roman Catholic Church, the eradication of Protestantism and heresies. At the same time, the deep religiosity of the Spanish king did not rule out conflicts with the popes for political reasons. When Philip ascended the throne, Spain was engaged in a tense struggle with France in the Italian Wars. In 1557, the Spaniards won a decisive victory at Saint-Quentin. The Italian wars ended in 1559 with a favorable Cato-Cambresia peace for Spain, which was sealed by the marriage of the newly widowed Philip II and the French princess Isabella of Valois (Elizabeth of France, 1545-1568). In honor of the victorious end of the wars in Madrid, the palace-monastery Escorial was built - the favorite residence of the king. Later, after the suppression of the Valois dynasty, marriage to Isabella served Philip as the basis for claims to the French throne.

During the reign of Philip II, royal absolutism was strengthened, Spain gained a permanent capital - Madrid. The king systematically limited the medieval liberties of individual regions, cities and institutions (the abolition of the liberties of Aragon in 1591, the restriction of the prerogatives of the church), sought to unify his possessions, strengthened and enlarged the bureaucratic apparatus of government, which, in terms of his character, was the best match. The excessive caution of the monarch, the desire to personally control all the springs of power, distrust of subordinates - all this turned into an insufficient efficiency of the administrative apparatus, a fatal delay in making important decisions. At the request of the king, all reports came to him in writing, he sorted out papers in a small office, where only a few people had access.

Philip II zealously supported the Inquisition, heretics in his lands were burned, severely persecuted by the Moriscos, who were evicted in 1568-1570 to the barren lands in the interior of Spain. To avoid the influence of the Reformation, Spaniards were forbidden to study abroad. The active foreign policy and religious intolerance of Philip II had a negative impact on the Spanish economy, leading to an unjustified increase in taxes, the destruction of the financial system, the ruin of peasants and artisans, and, ultimately, to a deep economic decline of the whole country. Waging endless wars required huge amounts of money. Philip II increased taxes (including the alcabal), to pay off the state deficit, he repeatedly confiscated gold, silver, cargo arriving from America, made huge loans. But expenses invariably turned out to be more than income. Philip II in 1557, 1575, 1598 declared state bankruptcy, which brought even more disorder into the economic life of the country.

In the Netherlands, economic oppression, the infringement of the national dignity of the local population and the persecution of Protestants caused a revolution. Attempts to suppress the resistance of the Netherlands cost Spain enormous material costs and human losses, but did not bring complete success. Freed from the feudal-absolutist oppression, the Republic of the United Provinces became one of Spain's main rivals in the colonies.

A significant place in the foreign policy of Philip II was occupied by the struggle with the Ottoman Empire - the most powerful Muslim state of the 16th century. The onslaught of the Turks in the Mediterranean contributed to the formation of the Holy League, consisting of Spain, Venice and the papacy. The combined fleet of the league in 1571 defeated the Turks at Lepanto, which made it possible to stop the expansion Ottoman Empire in the Mediterranean. In the colonies, the reign of Philip II became a time of transition from discoveries and conquests to the organization of the administration of the conquered territories. In 1580, after the suppression of the Portuguese royal dynasty, the king of Spain put forward his candidacy for the throne and was successful. A personal union united Portugal and Spain for 60 years. It was an undoubted foreign policy success of Philip II - the dangerous rival of Spain in the colonies was eliminated. In the future, Portugal no longer played a leading role in the discoveries and conquests of overseas territories.

In the second half of the 16th century, England became the most dangerous rival of Spain on the seas. English pirates terrorized overseas colonies, captured and sank Spanish galleons with American gold. Queen Elizabeth did not follow the precepts of the Roman Catholic Church, supported the Protestant movement on the continent, and provided real assistance to the rebellious Netherlands. After the execution of Mary Stuart, Philip II decided to end England with one blow. In 1588, he equipped a huge fleet, called the Invincible Armada. Her death was a heavy blow for Spain, from which she was never able to recover. Hegemony on the seas began to pass to England and Holland, and Spain ceased to be considered the most powerful state in Europe.

For many years, Philip II supported the Catholics in the Huguenot wars in France. After the death of Henry III of Valois, he tried to place his daughter Isabella on the French throne and brought a Spanish garrison into Paris in 1591. However, the Estates General of 1593 rejected the candidacy of Isabella Habsburg, and in June 1595 the Spaniards were defeated by Henry of Navarre at the Battle of Fontaine-Française. Spanish troops were expelled from France. Shortly before his death, in May 1598, Philip II was forced to recognize Henry IV of Bourbon as the French king and sign a peace agreement with him in Vervain.

Philip's personality was assessed differently by his contemporaries. In the eyes of the Protestants, he was a bloody monster, all possible vices were attributed to him, his repulsive appearance was emphasized. Indeed, suspicion reigned at the Spanish court, the atmosphere of palace life was poisoned by intrigues. At the same time, Philip was a connoisseur and patron of the arts, Spanish literature in his time was experiencing its golden age, the king himself collected books and works of art from all over Europe.

The secrets of the Madrid court hide the causes of death only son Philip II and Mary of Portugal - Don Carlos.

He took care of a good education and upbringing for the heir to the throne. In addition to Spanish, Philip spoke French, Italian and Latin. However, he had a great inclination towards the exact sciences, especially mathematics. Under the guidance of mentors, the boy developed a passion for reading (by the time of his death, his personal library consisted of 14,000 volumes). In childhood and adolescence, Philip developed a deep love for nature, and in the future, trips to nature, fishing and hunting became for him the most desirable and best relaxation after heavy workloads. Philip was also very musical, and when he became a father himself, great importance gave to the fact that to attach to the music of their children.

Philip was brought up in accordance with the traditions of the Spanish court, behaved with cold grandeur and arrogant restraint. WITH early age there was caution and secrecy in him. He spoke slowly, carefully considering his words, and never lost control of himself. Philip was indifferent to noisy amusements and knightly tournaments, did not like luxury and was moderate in food. His face always maintained a calm, majestic expression, which made a very strong impression on those around him. Only in the presence of the closest people, Philip allowed himself to show ordinary human feelings: love for his wife and children, admiration for the beauties of nature and works of art.

Philip's main attraction was the desire for power. This was evident even from the history of his marriages. Philip's first wife was the Portuguese Infanta Maria. She died on the fourth day after giving birth to the unfortunate Don Carlos. Through this marriage, Philip considered himself heir to the Portuguese throne. Philip's second wife was the Queen of England. She was much older than her husband, besides, not very beautiful. But the emperor needed English money, and Philip, as an obedient son, submitted to him. If she had any feelings for her husband and even wanted to give birth to a child from him, then he did not even show his wife external signs of attention. For the third time, Philip married the young beauty Elizabeth of Valois in order to secure a peace treaty with, but the young wife died after 9 years, leaving two daughters, one of whom, Isabella, became the ruler of the Southern Netherlands. Philip tried to make her the French queen after the extinction of the Valois dynasty. For the fourth time, Philip married his niece Anna of Austria, who was promised as a wife to Don Carlos, and was mercilessly criticized for incest.

Philip's relationship with his eldest son, Don Carlos, deserves a separate story. Carlos was an unbalanced man, prone to senseless cruelty. He fell in love with his stepmother Elizabeth, who also had some sympathy for him, and then was about to flee to the Netherlands to start a rebellion against his father. Realizing what threatens Spain if Don Carlos becomes king, and fearing for his own life, Philip ordered his son to be placed under house arrest in Arevalo Castle, the very one where the mad queen spent many years. There, Carlos finally lost his mind, and he died at dawn on June 24, 1568.

Unlike his father, who traveled a lot, Philip spent all his time in his office. He liked to think that from the comfort of his room he ruled half the globe. He strove for unlimited power to such an extent that he did not want to share government duties with anyone and was his own first minister. Philip was incredibly diligent. He personally read a lot of business papers, making notes in the margins. However, this quality also had a downside. Spread over trifles, the king often did not find time to solve really important and urgent matters. Nevertheless, he was indeed a great king, and under him Spain reached its greatest greatness.

By inheritance from his father, Philip received hostile relations with France and the Holy See. The new pope first of all excommunicated Philip from the church. Philip moved the army of the Duke of Alba to Rome, and in September 1557 was forced to capitulate. Meanwhile, the Anglo-Spanish army of the Duke of Savoy invaded northern France. Having defeated the French army of the Montmorency constable, she almost reached Paris, but due to lack of money, Philip was forced to stop the war. On April 2, 1559, peace was signed at Cato Cambresi, ending the Italian Wars.

They were replaced by new wars with the rebellious Netherlands. The rebellions were caused by Philip's persecution of the Protestants. In 1556, the Flemish nobles presented the ruler of the Netherlands, Margaret, with a request to soften the edict against heretics. When Philip refused to fulfill it, uprisings broke out in Antwerp and other cities. The king instructed the Duke of Alba to suppress them, who took up the matter with extreme cruelty. This only led to increased discontent. In 1573, Philip deposed Alba, but it was too late. In 1575, Holland and Zeeland announced their separation from Spain. The Flemish provinces entered into a defensive alliance with them. After a bitter war, by 1585 the Spaniards managed to retake the southern Catholic provinces, but Holland retained its independence.

Philip's most important business in the Iberian Peninsula was the acquisition of Portugal. He was the closest heir to a childless king. The Cortes did not want to recognize him as sovereign for a long time, but in 1580 the Duke of Alba captured Lisbon, and the next year Philip came to the conquered country to accept the expression of humility from his new subjects. He provided Portuguese representation in the management of a single state, allowed Portugal to maintain its own laws and monetary unit; at one time, the idea of ​​moving the capital of a single state to Lisbon was even discussed.

Philip's wars against and were not so successful. In 1588, Philip sent against a huge fleet - the "Invincible Armada" of 130 ships with 19 thousand soldiers. However, due to storms, the squadron reached the shores of Britain badly battered and became easy prey for the English fleet. Only the pitiful remnants of the Armada returned to the Netherlands and Portugal. Having lost almost all of its fleet, Spain became vulnerable to pirates. In 1596, the British sacked Cadiz.

In the war with Philip also failed. After his death, he nominated his daughter Isabella as a pretender to the French throne. The Spanish army invaded, captured Rouen, Paris and a number of cities in Brittany. But under the threat of a foreign invasion, even Catholics and Huguenots united. In 1594 he retook Paris, and in 1598 a peace was signed that did not bring any benefits to Spain.

This war was the last for Philip. Half of Europe was under his rule. Thanks to American gold, he became the richest of all Christian monarchs. But wealth did not linger in his hands. The maintenance of the army, the network of secret agents in other countries, the payment of extortionate interest on old debts - all this required huge amounts of money. With outward grandeur, by the end of Philip's reign in Spain, trade, industry, and the navy fell into decline. High taxes and customs duties did not contribute to the development of either agriculture, or cattle breeding, or trade. During the reign of Philip, the population of Spain decreased by two million people. In addition to those who died in the wars, who emigrated to America and fled from the persecution of the Inquisition, a significant part of this decline were those who died from hunger and epidemics.

Shortly after making peace with France, Philip fell ill with gout. His body was covered with terrible ulcers. After ordering a coffin to be placed next to the bed and giving orders for his own funeral, Philip died on September 13, 1598.

King of Spain from the Habsburg family, who ruled from 1556-1598. King of Portugal 1581-1598 Son of Charles I (V) and Isabella of Portugal. Zh.: 1) from 1543 Maria, daughter of King João III of Portugal (b. 1527, d. 1545); 2) from 1554 the English Queen Mary I (b. 1516, d. 1558); 3) from 1560 Elizabeth, daughter of King Henry II of France (b. 1545, d. 1568); 4) from 1570 Anna, daughter of Emperor Maximilian II (born 1549, died 1580). Genus. May 21, 1527, d. 13 Sept. 1598

Philip had been brought up in Spain in the national habit of carrying himself with cold grandeur and haughty reserve. When the Infanta was six years old, Emperor Charles took care of his education. Philip studied the ancient classics and made great progress in Latin. Of the modern languages, he studied French and Italian, but always preferred Spanish to them. He had great inclinations towards the exact sciences, especially mathematics. From an early age, caution and secrecy were noticeable in Philip. His slow speech was always well thought out, and his thoughts were serious beyond his years. Even as a child, he never lost power over himself. When he grew up, many of the character traits that distinguished Philip from his father appeared. He was indifferent to knightly exercises, very moderate in food, abhorred the noisy amusements so common in those days, and did not like luxury. He accustomed his face to always maintain a calm, majestic expression and produced a strong effect with this impassive seriousness. With amazing self-control, he knew how to hide feelings, so that his expression was always invariably melancholy. However, the letters that he later wrote to his beloved daughter Isabella prove that he had such properties that posterity did not look for in him - he treated his children with great care, treated his servants meekly, admired the beauties of nature, the splendor of ancient palaces and gardens. He was not without even a certain good nature, but all these qualities of his soul were revealed only to those closest to him. In front of the rest of the world, Philip wore a mask of cold arrogance.

He had no other passionate desires, except for the desire for power. This manifested itself in the history of his four marriages. Philip's first wife, the Portuguese Infanta Maria, did not live long: she died after she gave birth to the unfortunate Don Carlos. The widowed Philip intended to marry another Portuguese princess for political reasons, but Charles V, in need of English money and soldiers, decided to marry him to Queen Mary Tudor, who was twelve years older than him and was considered very ugly. Philip, as an obedient son, agreed to this without any hesitation. “I have no desires other than yours,” he wrote to his father, “so I completely rely on you and will do whatever you please.” The influence that Philip acquired over Mary, he used only for his own political purposes, he demanded great sacrifices from her, for which he did not even reward her with outward signs of cordial affection. The third wife, Elisabeth of Valois, on the contrary, inspired Philip with strong sympathy for her youth, graceful manners and modesty. However, the marriage with her was also unhappy and served, as they say, the cause of a terrible drama in the royal family. Don Carlos, the son of Philip from his first marriage, an unbalanced man, prone to senseless and unbridled deeds, fell in love with his stepmother without memory. He decided to flee to Germany, and from there to make his way to the Netherlands to start a fight against his father. Philip, having found out about the feelings and plans of his son, ordered him to be locked in one of the far rooms of the palace and kept there in strict confinement. Here the mind finally left the unfortunate man, and he died in February 1568. A few months after him, at the age of 23, Elizabeth died. Since Philip had no sons, the need to have an heir forced him to rush into a new marriage. He married a beautiful Archduchess who had just arrived from Vienna and was only 21 years old. From her was born that sickly child, who had neither personal will nor mind, who subsequently reigned under the name of Philip III.

Unlike his father, who constantly moved from one country to another and participated in campaigns himself, Philip spent all his time in the office; he liked to think that from the comfort of his room he ruled half the globe. He loved unlimited power even more passionately than his father. He had favorites, there were ministers whom he greatly valued, but he never shared with them not only his supreme power, but even his government concerns. He himself was his first minister, and until his old age he wanted to see everything with his own eyes. About his rights, as well as about his duties, he had the most high concept and considered himself the main servant of the country. The royal title, he said, is a position, and, moreover, the most important of all. Going to the Escurial from Madrid, the king took with him a mass of business papers. His industriousness was incredible: he examined in detail the contents of the dispatches of his envoys, making numerous notes in the margins. His secretaries sent him pre-written replies to all reports, but he revised the content of these replies and, by his corrections, showed both his insight and deep understanding of each case. However, this merit had a reverse side, since the king, in his meticulousness, often reached unimportant trifles, delved into every issue for a long time and constantly postponed the solution of urgent matters. But be that as it may, Philip was a great king. The nation which he ruled reached in his reign an exalted position which it never again attained. She became the head of the Catholic world, guarded it, served as its leader and dominated it. For half a century, Spain waged stubborn wars in various parts of Europe.

By inheritance from his father, Philip received hostile relations with France and Rome. Pope Paul IV began his pontificate by excommunicating Charles and Philip and declaring Philip stripped of the Neapolitan crown. Philip was forced to move against the pope Italian army commanded by the Duke of Alba. In September 1557, Paul IV capitulated and signed a peace treaty with Philip. While the war was going on in Italy, an Anglo-Spanish army under the command of the Duke of Savoy invaded northern France. In August, Saint-Quentin was taken, under the walls of which the French constable Montmorency was defeated. After that, the road to Paris was opened. But the lack of money forced Philip to agree to negotiations. On April 2, 1559, a peace treaty was signed in Cato Combresi, which put an end to many years of Italian wars.

They were replaced by endless wars with the fallen Dutch provinces. The national and economic oppression here was intensified by the cruel religious persecution of Protestants. In 1566, a large deputation of the Flemish nobles presented a request to Duchess Margarita, who ruled the Netherlands, to soften the edict against heretics. .When Philip refused to satisfy this petition, uprisings broke out in Antwerp and some other cities. The following year, the uprisings were crushed, but Philip decided to take the most drastic measures. He appointed the Duke of Alba as his governor in the Netherlands, who, with immoderate cruelty, brought the country in 1572 to a new uprising. The following year, the king deposed Alba, but it was already too late. In 1575, Holland and Zeeland announced their separation from Spain. The Flemish provinces entered into a defensive alliance with them. Only after a fierce war did the Spaniards manage to recapture the southern Catholic provinces by 1585, but Holland retained its independence.

Philip's most important business in the Iberian Peninsula was the acquisition of Portugal. He was the closest heir to the childless Portuguese king Sebastian, but the Cortes were slow to recognize his rights. In 1580, the Duke of Alba entered Portugal at the head of a large army, smashed the gates at Alcantara and took possession of Lisbon. In 1581, Philip arrived in the conquered country and accepted the expression of humility from his new subjects.

Philip's wars against England and France were not as successful. Intending to end England with one blow, in 1588 Philip sent the Invincible Armada against her - a huge fleet of 130 ships, on which there were 19 thousand Spanish soldiers. The Queen of England then had no more than 30 ships, which were joined by one and a half hundred private ships. Fortunately for England, the country already had at that time a sufficient number of good sailors. In addition, storms and contrary winds became formidable opponents of the Spaniards. As soon as the squadron left Lisbon, a terrible storm broke out over it, scattering the ships in different directions. The Spaniards lost more than 50 ships near the rocky Orcadian and Hebrides islands, as well as in dangerous straits off the coast of Scotland. In the stormy seas off the shelterless shores, the heavy Spanish ships became easy prey for the fast and nimble English ships. Only the pitiful remnants of the Spanish fleet were able to return to the Netherlands and Portugal. With the death of the Invincible Armada, the shores of Spain were open to English pirates. In 1596, the British took and sacked Cadiz.

Philip's wars in France also ended in failure. He spent huge amounts of money to support the Catholic League, and after the death of Henry III in 1589, he nominated his daughter Isabella as a pretender to the French throne. The Spaniards started a war with Henry IV, took possession of Rouen, Paris and some cities in Brittany. But soon both Protestants and Catholics united to fight the foreigners. In 1594 Henry took Paris. In 1598, a peace was signed that did not give Spain any benefits beyond the Pyrenees.

It was the last of an endless series of wars fought during Philip's reign, which secured Spain's dominance over half of Europe. The price paid for this was enormous. Thanks to the American gold mines, Philip was the richest of all Christian monarchs. But the gold did not linger in his hands. The maintenance of armies, a costly court, the bribery of a huge number of secret agents in all countries, and most importantly, the payment of extortionate interest on former debts, demanded more and more sums. Spain was not rich enough to pay for its glory. With outward grandeur, everything in it fell into decay by the end of Philip's reign - both trade, and industry, and the navy. The ever-increasing costs covered all income items. Since the time of Charles V, finances have been in disarray. Philip was forced to resort to the most sophisticated means to replenish the treasury, but it remained empty throughout his reign. The need for money constantly dominated all other considerations. There were no such interests, rights and traditions that would not be sacrificed for its satisfaction. The kingdom's revenues were pledged long before they were received. The people were reduced by taxes to complete poverty. It is believed that during the reign of Philip the population of Spain decreased by 2 million people. In addition to those who died in the wars, who emigrated to America and fled from the persecution of the Inquisition, a significant part of this decline were those who died from hunger and epidemics. Taxes, customs duties and communication difficulties killed trade and industry. At the Cortes in 1594, it was said: “How can you engage in trade when you have to pay 300 ducats of taxes on a capital of 1,000 ducats? .. In those areas where 30,000 arrobs of wool were previously produced, now the consumption of wool barely reaches 6,000 arrobs. For this reason, and in consequence of the tax on wool, the number of cattle is reduced. Agriculture and cattle breeding, industry and trade are brought to a complete decline; in the whole kingdom there is no longer a place in which there would be a sufficient number of inhabitants; everywhere there are many houses without any inhabitants; in short, the kingdom perishes." Such was the sad result of a great reign, and such were the results of efforts incommensurable with the means of the country.

Shortly after the conclusion of peace with France, Philip died of gout, which caused terrible ulcers. Anticipating his imminent death, he ordered to be transported to the Escurial. He ordered his coffin to be placed next to the bed and gave detailed instructions regarding his funeral. Until the end of his days, he retained a clear mind and died, fixing his eyes on the Crucifixion.

Philip II - the king of Spain (from 1556 to 1598) from the Habsburg dynasty, the son of Charles V - is an extremely controversial personality. The reign of F. is the time of the highest power of Spain - a maritime and colonial power. After the Spanish empire annexed Portugal with its own empire, the sun never set in the fullest sense of the word over the dominions of King Philip II. Almost half of Europe, almost the entire New World and significant parts of Africa and Asia lay under the boot of the newly-minted master of the world. Philip II, an ardent Catholic, was obsessed with creating a worldwide Catholic empire, but Protestant England greatly interfered with his dreams.

The Queen of Great Britain, the power-hungry Elizabeth I, who skillfully rejected the indefatigable Philip's matchmaking at one time, is also obsessed with creating an empire, but only her own. She did not even recognize the Pope himself and therefore was the first, blood enemy for the Spanish king. Philip was well aware that sooner or later he would have to reckon with recalcitrant Britain, destroy her, but quickly.

In the internal history of Spain, the reign of Philip is a difficult period of the most complete despotism. The sixties of the 16th century were occupied by fierce land and sea wars (generally successful for F.) against the barbarians - corsair pirates from Barbary, Barbary, Turkey, etc. Philip saw in this struggle not only a matter of state importance, but also an issue in which all Christianity is interested. Even more so, he looked at the war with the Turks. In 1571, at the initiative of Pope Pius V, a "holy league" was formed - a coalition led by Spain - consisting of Venice, Spain, Genoa, Savoy and some small Italian states, which won a complete unconditional victory over the Turks at Lepanto as a result of one of the largest naval battles in the history of world wars. (Among the Spanish volunteers in the boarding party was the future author of Don Quixote, Miguel Cervantes.)

This victory did not have immediate material results for Spain, but it greatly increased the prestige of the Spanish fleet in the eyes of Europe, putting an end to Turkish power in the Mediterranean basin - the war with Turkey went on, intermittently, permanently, until the end of Philip's reign.

The reign of Philip is the peak and the beginning of the decline of Spanish absolutism. Brutal suppression of popular uprisings, destruction of ancient local privileges, ferocious persecution of heretics and non-believers, rampant inquisition. In foreign policy, Philip sought to subjugate all of Europe to his influence and adamantly intervened in the internal affairs of other countries, supporting the forces of Catholic reaction everywhere. After the uprising in the Netherlands and the defeat in the war with England (1588), the collapse of the Spanish great power policy became obvious.

In the 16th century The Netherlands is modern Holland, Belgium, Luxembourg, part of France. They had 17 provinces - Flanders, Brabant, Hainaut, Artois, Namur, Luxembourg, Mechelen, Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Frisia, Geldern, Groningen, Overijssel, Drenthe, Ommelanden, Limburg - they were conquered by Charles V.

In 1756, abdicating the throne, Charles V divided his possessions between his son Philip and his younger brother Ferdinand, to whom he ceded the Austrian fiefdom and the emperorship in Germany. And Philip II inherited Spain with its possessions in Italy (the Kingdom of Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, Milan) and overseas, as well as the Netherlands - he tried to turn them into part of his empire. (Under Charles V (1500-1558), the Netherlands brought the imperial treasury four times more income than the Spanish colonies in the New World.) From 1580, a personal union united Portugal and Spain with Spain for 60 years. In Spanish America, the reign of Philip II was marked by a transition from discoveries and conquests to organizing the management of already conquered territories.

The impressions taken from the Netherlands subsequently influenced the architecture of the Spanish buildings and parks erected by the king, in the planning of which he took an active and direct part. Netherlandish painting also fell in love: soon the collection of F. had 40 paintings by Hieronymus Bosch alone. Madrid and Seville developed into prosperous metropolises; the first - thanks to the presence of the court and the central authorities in it, the second - thanks to the monopoly on trade with America. Undoubtedly, in the time of Philip II, the cities were the most dynamic elements of social development in the Spanish kingdom.

On the other hand - economic oppression, national oppression, religious persecution - led in 1566 to an explosion that opened a long epic revolutionary struggle in the Netherlands. It ended with the separation of 7 northern provinces into an independent state - the Republic of the United Provinces (Holland); in Flanders and other southern provinces, which remained a stronghold of Catholicism, the revolution was suppressed.

In an effort to preserve Catholicism in his possessions at all costs, the king patronized the Inquisition and the Jesuits, persecuted Moriscos - Muslims, "little Moors" who forcibly converted to Christianity (their uprising in 1568 - 1571 was savagely suppressed).

To avoid the influence of the Reformation, the Spaniards were even forbidden to study abroad, and vigilant supervision was established over theological literature, which penetrated into Spain secretly, furtively. The active foreign policy and religious intolerance of Philip II had a negative impact on the Spanish economy, leading to an unjustified increase in taxes, the destruction of the financial system, the ruin of peasants and artisans, and ultimately to a deep economic decline of the country.

The excessive caution of the monarch, the desire to personally control the springs of power, distrust of subordinates - all this turned into an insufficient efficiency of the administrative apparatus, a fatal delay in making important decisions. At the request of the king, reports were received in writing, he sorted out papers in a small office, where only a few people had access.

King Philip, meanwhile, could not find a place for himself from anguish and anger. Painfully ambitious, he prayed that the Lord would help him conquer England, conquer France, capture Milan, Genoa, Venice, become the master of the seas and thus concentrate power over all of Europe in his hands.

But even the thought of the final triumph did not amuse him. 2

Philip II was married 4 times. The first wife (in the name of the fulfillment of Spanish interests), brought to him by his cousin, Mary of Portugal, died after childbirth, in 1545. In 1554, Philip married the English queen Mary Tudor (“Bloody”), but after her death he left England, rejected by Mary’s successor, Elizabeth, and parliament did not recognize his right to rule the country. Mary Tudor had no children from F.. His son from the marriage with Mary of Portugal - Don Carlos - died in 1568 under unclear circumstances. From the third marriage with Isabella of Valois, two daughters remained, one of whom, Isabella, became the ruler of the Southern Netherlands, Philip tried to make her the French queen after the extinction of the Valois dynasty 3. The Spanish crown was inherited by the only son who survived his father, Philip III, from his marriage to Anna of Austria, who was originally intended to be the wife of the future heir to the Spanish throne, Don Carlos, who died suddenly.

Philip had quite a few mistresses, but they did not ruin the public finances: in privacy the king is not wasteful - endless wars, almost always unsuccessful, the barbaric persecution of the industrious and merchant population for religious beliefs - this is what contributed to the impoverishment and almost complete bankruptcy of Spain by the end of Philip's life. Philip died from a painful illness; he treated physical suffering with his characteristic grim fortitude.

The personality of Philip II is assessed by Catholic and Protestant authors quite differently, differently. The latter describe it as bloody monster, attribute to him all sorts of vices, emphasize the repulsive appearance; suspiciousness reigned at the Spanish court, everything was poisoned by vile intrigues. At the same time, Philip was known as a subtle connoisseur and patron of the arts, Spanish literature, painting in his time experienced the Golden Age (Lope de Vega, El Greco), which lasted until the 2nd half of the 17th century; Philip collected rare books and paintings from all over Europe (Erasmus, Dürer, Copernicus, artists Brueghel, Bouts) - although the chronological boundaries of the Golden Age in political and cultural terms do not coincide.

He was always cold. Neither the wine nor the fire in the fireplace, where the fragrant wood was constantly burned, warmed him. He sat in his rest; overwhelmed with so many letters that one could fill a hundred barrels with them, he kept writing something; wrote, dreamed of world domination, which the Roman emperors possessed, and choked with envious malice towards his son Don Carlos, whom he hated since he had the desire to replace the Duke of Alba 4 in the Netherlands - no doubt, in order to reign there, as Philip thought. The fact that his son was ugly, ugly, angry, rabid and ferocious only increased his hatred. But he didn't tell anyone about it.

Religion is just a ruse that served as a legitimate excuse for the Spanish king to land in England. There were more important reasons for the enmity between England and Spain. The power of Spain rested entirely on gold, silver and precious stones, which were exported by tens of thousands of tons from her overseas colonies. Thanks to this "import", the entire Spanish aristocracy bathed in luxury. Gold was used to buy the necessary goods abroad, because because of the same gratuitous gold there was absolutely no need to develop our own industry. Gold and jewelry went to the maintenance of a huge army of mercenaries, they also paid for continuous wars and other external and internal political actions. In order for this gold source not to dry up, Spain needs a powerful fleet that would transport gold from across the ocean. It was very clear to Philip II, his courtiers and politicians that as long as Spain owns the seas, while overseas gold constantly replenishes the state treasury, the country remains the most powerful in the world. Spain had such a fleet, and it still dominated the seas and oceans without limit, but it seems that a quiet life for Spain was ending. A serious rival appeared on the sea, and this rival was the Protestant England so hated by Philip ...

The preparation of the Invincible Armada took Spain several years, but only in 1586 did a large-scale collection of ships for this expedition begin. The main goal of the Armada's voyage was not the destruction of the English fleet, which, according to Philip II, the British simply did not have, but the landing of a powerful landing force in England. This landing, with the support of the Catholic fifth column, was supposed to overthrow the power of the heretic Elizabeth I and return England to Rome, and also make it dependent on His Catholic Majesty.

In 1586, all Spanish ships in Atlantic Ocean began to gather off the coast of Spain. An exception was made only for ships needed to guard convoys with treasures from the New World. These forces were clearly not enough to organize a large-scale invasion, but the situation favored the Spaniards: at that time a big war broke out between Turkey and Persia, so that Spain was able to send large forces based in the Mediterranean to join the Armada.

The servants did not know who they should be more afraid of: the royal son of Don Carlos, impetuous, bloodthirsty, biting his nails into those who served him, or the cowardly and treacherous father, who killed by proxy and, like a hyena, adored corpses.

The servants were chilled by frost at the sight of father and son circling each other. The servants said that there would be a dead person in Escorial 5 not for a long time. And sure enough: it wasn't long before they learned that Don Carlos had been thrown into prison on charges of high treason. They also learned that Don Carlos was languishing in prison, that while trying to escape, he had injured his face while climbing through the bars, and that his mother, Isabella of France, was crying without drying her eyes. (I.F. - stepmother of Carlos, third wife of F. II, - author)

But King Philip did not cry.

Then a rumor spread that Don Carlos had been given unripe figs, and that the very next day he died - fell asleep and did not wake up. The doctors said: as soon as he ate figs, his heart stopped beating, all natural functions stopped - he could neither spit, nor vomit, nor spew anything from his body. His belly swelled up and he died.

King Philip endured the funeral service for Don Carlos, ordered him to be buried in the chapel of the royal palace and a tombstone laid, but he did not cry.

And the servants composed a mocking epitaph for the prince:

Here lies the one who ate the unripe figs
And, without getting sick, he died instantly.
Aqui yaco quien, para decit verdad,
Murio sin enfermedad.

And King Philip cast carnivorous glances at the married woman Princess Eboli ... (Philip's mistress unwillingly died in prison. The princes of Eboli are childhood friends of F. II, - author)

Queen Isabella of France, who was rumored to have encouraged Don Carlos in his quest to take over the Netherlands, languished with grief.

And Philip did not cry.

They buried Prince Eboli, the royal adviser.

King Philip consoled the widow Eboli in her grief, but he did not cry.

Although England and Spain were not formally at war yet, English warships, operating under pirate flags, more and more often attacked the galleons of the Spanish "Golden Fleet" loaded with gold and jewelry, transporting unheard-of wealth from America to Europe. After each meeting of the Spanish caravans with the corsairs of Elizabeth I, the Spaniards were missing one, two, or even a dozen "gold" galleons. The “pirate of his royal majesty”, the brave and inventive adventurer Francis Drake, who robbed not only ships, but also Spanish cities located on the American continent, brought especially a lot of trouble to Philip II personally. The gold taken by Drake from the Spanish crown and delivered to England, over time, was almost the main source that fed the state treasury.

Finally, Philip II began to prepare for a decisive attack on the possessions of the recalcitrant British queen. After long and painstaking preparations, the Spanish squadron is gathering in Lisbon. Numerous chronicles of contemporaries who observed the departure of the Spanish squadron, called the "Invincible Armada", are devoted to this event. Here is how one of the most competent researchers of the Spanish Armada, the German scientist and writer Hans Roden, describes this action:

“... The rumble of cannons over the Lisbon raid is muffled. Philip II of Spain escorts his fleet to war - ten squadrons with a flagship at the head of each. On this day, May 29, 1588, 130 large warships with a total tonnage of 57868 tons with 2630 guns on board under the command of the Spanish Duke of Medina Sidonia leave the harbor. Together with him, 30 transports go to sea with 19,300 soldiers, 8,450 sailors, 2,088 rowers chained to the galleys and the Grand Inquisitor with 180 monks on board. The purpose of the campaign is to put an end to the heretic queen Elizabeth I and arrogant England ... "

All the time he puzzled over how to overthrow the great Queen Elizabeth from the English throne and raise Mary Stuart 6 . He wrote about this to the impoverished, entangled in debt pope, and the pope answered him that for the sake of such a thing he would not hesitate to sell the sacred vessels of the temples and the treasures of the Vatican.

But Philip did not laugh.

Favorite of Queen Mary Stuart - Ridolfi (secret agent who failed the plot against Elizabeth I - ed.) - in the hope that, having freed her, he would marry her and become the king of England, he came to Philip to conspire about the murder of Elizabeth. But he turned out to be such a "talker", as the king himself called him in a letter, that his plans were discussed aloud at the Antwerp stock exchange. And he failed to kill the queen.

And Philip did not laugh.

Later, the bloody duke, on the orders of the king, sent two assassins to England, then two more. All four landed on the gallows.

And Philip did not laugh.

With a speed that astonishes the Spanish, Rodin continues, Lord Howard and his Admirals Drake, Hawkins and Frobisher circle the enemy Spanish ships and meet them with well-aimed shots, while inaccurate Spanish fire does not damage them. Due to the sluggishness of the galleons, one of them, which had on board most of the gold, collided with another and broke the mast - this mention of an old chronicle confirms that some Spanish ships were carrying unimaginably valuable cargo, probably the salary of crews and troops ...

IN bloody battles sank, ran aground and were captured by the British dozens of large warships. The rising west wind greatly hampered the maneuvering of the Spanish squadron, stretching for more than forty miles, and there was no question of any centralized control. The thoroughly battered armada had no choice but to continue moving east, towards the outlet to the North Sea. On August 11, Sidonia received a message that the troops of the Duke of Parma, commander of the 30,000th expeditionary force, were not yet ready to cross the English Channel, and it was not known whether they would be ready at all. Three days later, Sidonia, having compared all his desires with his capabilities, gave the order to stop the expedition, in other words, he decided to run away. So, not accepting a general battle, the Spaniards retreated. The grand adventure of Philip II suffered a grand failure.

Before the Duke of Sidonia, with all the acuteness, the question arose of the return of such an armada of ships battered by bad weather and the British. The incessant southwest left the admiral with only one way out: to get back to Spain, bypassing England and Ireland from the north. The return, due to the incessant storms and the damage received by the ships, was incredibly difficult and cost the Spaniards huge losses. A month and a half after the start of the retreat, the Medina Sidonia squadron returned to Spain, but this bunch of floating ruins no longer looked like the once brilliant “Invincible Armada”. 57 Spanish ships remained lying on seabed off the coast of England, Scotland and Ireland. More than ten thousand Spanish sailors died with them. For Spanish rule on the seas, this was a very effective beginning of a quick end - the death of the Armada was a severe blow for Spain; the initiative on the seas passed to England, and later to Holland.

And so the Lord punished this vampire for ambition, but meanwhile the vampire already imagined how he would take away his son from Mary Stuart and together with the pope (Roman, - ed.) would rule England. And seeing that this noble country is becoming more influential and powerful day by day, the murderer was spiteful. He did not take his dull eyes off her and kept thinking how to crush her, so that later he would take over the whole world, exterminate the Reformed, especially the rich, and seize their property.

But he didn't laugh.

And they brought him mice, domestic and field, in a tall iron box, with one transparent wall. And he put the box on the fire and watched and listened with pleasure as the unfortunate animals rush about, squeak, squeal, and breathe.

But he didn't laugh.

Then, pale, with trembling hands, he went to Princess Eboli and embraced her with the flame of his voluptuousness, which he kindled with the straw of his cruelty.

And he didn't laugh.

And Princess Eboli did not love him and accepted him only for the sake of fear.

____________________
1. Nostradamus (Katren I, 31): the bankruptcy of Spain is predicted, because of which Philip II stopped the war with France, and then with England; the three great ones are the conquerors of Philip II and his father Charles V, Henry IV, Elizabeth I and Pope Clement VII. The eagle means the Habsburgs and Philip II, the rooster means France (F. concluded peace with France only in 1598, a few months before his death), the moon means Turkey, the lion means England.
2. In italics - (hereinafter) the text from the "Legend of Ulenspiegel" by Charles de Coster is used.
3. The Valois dynasty - occupied the French throne from 1328 to 1589, before the entry into power of the Bourbon dynasty.
4. Duke of Alba (1507 - 1582) - one of the commanders and advisers of Charles V, and later Philip II. The bloody governorship of Alba (1567 - 1573) entered the history of the Netherlands as the darkest time for the country.
5. Escorial - a symbolic center of dominion, combining a royal residence, a monastery and a dynastic tomb near Madrid.
6. Mary Stuart (1542 - 1587) - Queen of Scots, who claimed the English throne. The rebellion of the Scottish Calvinist Lords (1567) deprived her of her crown and in home country. Mary had to seek refuge with her powerful rival Elizabeth I, whose prisoner she remained until the end of her days. The Catholics of England and other countries more than once plotted to kill Elizabeth and raise Mary to the English throne (Philip II also participated in the development of these plans). In 1587, Mary Stuart was executed.

Literature:
"Encyclopedic Dictionary" F.A. Brockhaus, I.A. Efron.
"History of the Reign of Philip II, King of Spain". Prescott W. St. Petersburg, 1858.
Spanish Kings, ed. Bernecker V.L.; "Phoenix", Rostov-on-Don, 1998
"One Hundred Great Wars". Sokolov B.V. Publisher: Veche 2000.