Permanent composition of employees and oven homonym. II
Homonyms are words that are identical in sound composition, but not related in meaning: lezginka (dance) - lezginka (woman); rook (piece in chess) - rook (ship); ambassador (method of procurement of products) - ambassador (diplomat). The same external sound-letter and grammatical form of homonyms makes communication difficult, since distinguishing their meaning is possible only in context, in combination with other words. Homonyms, examples of which show this, cannot be understood without context: an advantageous offer is an impersonal offer; buds open - cure buds; right hand- right (innocent).
Types and examples of homonyms in Russian
Complete lexical homonymy is the coincidence of words related to the same part of speech in all forms: month (calendar) - month (luminary), assembly of a car (from the verb to collect) - assembly on fabric (fold), motive (musical) - motive (behavior), read (book) - read (adults, parents), outfit (order) - outfit (clothing), note (diplomatic) - note (musical). Incomplete lexical homonymy implies a coincidence in spelling and sounding of words belonging to the same part of speech, not in all forms: stingray (wheel; inanimate) - stingray (to the river; inanimate) - stingray (fish; animate); bury a hole (perfect view - bury) - bury medicine (perfect view - bury); cancer (river animal) - cancer (disease, has only a single number).
There are homonyms, examples of which can be seen below, associated with grammatical and sound change: mouth - gender (pronounced as [mouth]); three (from the verb to rub) - three (number); pair (boots) - (clubs) pair; oven (pies) - (Russian) oven.
Homonyms: examples and types by structure
- root. They have a non-derivative basis: marriage (factory) and marriage (happy), peace (reigns in the family and the state) and peace (the Universe).
- Derivative homonyms are the result of word formation: drill (drill song) and drill forest.
Phonetic, grammatical and graphic homonyms: examples of use
Homophones (phonetic homonyms) are words that are identical in sound composition, but different in spelling (letter composition): mushroom and flu, code and cat, fort and ford, illuminate and consecrate, people and fierce.
Homographs (alphabetic, graphic homonyms) are words that have the same alphabetic composition, but differ in pronunciation: shelves - shelves, horns - horns, atlas - atlas, soar - soar (stresses in these words fall on different syllables).
Homoforms - the coincidence of the grammatical forms of one word or different words: window glass (noun) - glass on the floor (verb time to go - summer time; hunting (for predators) and hunting (desire); popsicle ice cream - frozen meat (noun and adjective) ; return in the spring - enjoy the spring (adverb and noun); flow on the floor - close up the leak (verb and noun).
Pun and homonyms: examples of words and casual statements
It is necessary to be careful in the use of homonyms, since in some situations homonymy can distort the meaning of the statement and lead to comedy. For example, the words of a football match commentator: “In today's match, the players left without goals” can be understood in two ways. And even writers are not immune from such speech incidents:
- "Have you heard?"
- "One cannot be indifferent to evil."
The polysemy of a word is opposed by such a linguistic phenomenon as homonymy. homos identical and onym name are called words that are identical in sound and spelling but completely unrelated in meaning, unlike a polysemantic word. Lexical homonyms these are words of the same part of speech that are different in meaning and coincide in sound and spelling in all forms, for example, a scythe a type of hairstyle, a long sandbank, a mowing tool.
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The concept of homonymy
lexical, orproper homonymsWords of different meanings that are the same in sound and spelling in all their forms and refer to the same part of speech.
The polysemy of a word is opposed by such a linguistic phenomenon as homonymy. Homonyms (<греч. homos одинаковый и onyma name) are called words,identical in sound and spelling but completely unrelated in meaning(as opposed to a polysemantic word). For example, world “universe” and “absence of war”, mine “projectile” and “facial expression”, key “tool” and “spring”.
There are different types of homonymy.Lexical homonymsthese are words of the same part of speech that are different in meaning, which coincide in sound and spelling in all forms, for example, braid “kind of hairstyle”, “long sandbar”, “mowing tool”, German. website string and side, eng. spring spring and spring. If words coincide only in part of their forms, they are calledincomplete lexical homonyms e.g. goggles (for eyes) and goggles (count unit) match only in the plural form.
It is customary to distinguish phonetic, grammatical and graphic homonymy from lexical homonymy, which is called relative.
Phonetic homonyms, or homophones these are words and forms that have the same sound, but different spelling:pond and rod, span(n.) and five (num.), eng. night (night) and knight (knight), fr. le champ (field) le chant (singing), etc.
Homophones , or phonetic homonyms words and forms different in meaning, coinciding in sound, but differing in spelling.
homoforms,
Grammatical homonyms, or homoforms these are different words that coincide in sound and spelling only in certain forms, for example: three (num.) and three (imperative mood of the verb "to rub"), glass (n.) and glass (past tense, cf. the verb to drain), eng. can (to be able) and can (can).
homoforms, or morphological homonyms words that coincide in sound and spelling in one or more grammatical forms.
Graphic or homographs These are words that have the same spelling but different pronunciation, for example: lead (n.) lead (vb), road (n.) road (cr. adj.), eng. rou [rou] - row and [rau] scandal.
homographs (spelling homonyms) words and forms that are different in meaning and sound, but the same in spelling
The phenomenon of homonymy is inherent in almost all languages. In each of them, its occurrence is explained by the peculiarities of the specific historical development of the language system, but universal reasons for the appearance of homonyms can also be named:
- Sound coincidences that arose in the language as a result of changes in the phonetic system. So in the words reap "(from zhnti I reap rye) and “reap” (from press I shake my hand) in place of [нн], [ьм] in closed syllables there was a nasal vowel [ę], which changed after hissing into a pure vowel [a].
- The collapse of polysemy, i.e. loss of semantic connections between the meanings of a polysemantic word: Linden deciduous tree and fake, rook boat and chess piece, dark lack of light and countless.
- Coincidences as a result of the word-formation process and shaping, for example: shelf (from put) and shelf (from weed), critical (from "crisis" and from "critic").
- Borrowing words like marriage marriage (from the verb brethren, Slavic word) and marriage a thing with a defect from German ( brecken - to break), slope gentle descent and slope predatory sea fish (Scandinavian. skata), Wednesday day of the week (from Old Church Slavonic) and Wednesday (environment, semantic tracing paper, French. milieu) etc.
Homonymy must be distinguished from polysemy (from polysemy).The problem of distinguishing between these phenomena is complex, as evidenced primarily by lexicographic practice: often words in one dictionary are presented as homonyms, and in another as polysemantic lexemes.
The most recognized and effective are the followingtechniques for distinguishing between the phenomena of polysemy and homonymy:
A selection of synonyms, for example, bench - bench and shop - shop;
The selection of single-root words and the comparison of word forms, for homonyms they are different compare:peace peaceful, reconcile and peace world; braid pigtail and braid mow, mowing;
Accounting for lexical and syntactic compatibility: shaft (wave) high, ninth, rolling shaft (embankment) fortress, city, fortify; ask (who) ask (from whom), etc.; care (from work, from home) care (for the child); (polysemantic words and homonyms have different compatibility)
Accounting for the etymology (origin) of words, for example: Rus. club (smoke) and English. club (club), raid (raid) from English raid (water area at the pier) from the Dutch and others.
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The term orthoepy (Greek orthos - direct, correct + epos - speech) is used in two meanings: 1) a section of linguistics that studies normative literary pronunciation and 2) a set of rules that establish a uniform pronunciation that corresponds to the pronunciation standards adopted in the language.
Russian orthoepy includes the rules for pronunciation of unstressed vowels, voiced and voiceless consonants, hard and soft consonants, consonant combinations, the rules for pronunciation of individual grammatical forms, and especially the pronunciation of words of foreign origin. The issues of stress and intonation that are sometimes included in orthoepy, which are important for oral speech, are not the object of consideration of orthoepy, since they are not directly related to pronunciation. Stress refers to phonetics (serves to highlight a syllable in a word), to vocabulary (being a sign of a given word) or to grammar (being a sign of a given grammatical form). Intonation is an important means of expression oral speech, which gives it an emotional coloring, but is not related to the rules of pronunciation.
Formation of Russian literary pronunciation
The most important features of Russian literary pronunciation developed in the first half of the 18th century. based on the spoken language of the city of Moscow. By this time, Moscow pronunciation had lost its narrow dialectal features, combining the features of the pronunciation of the northern and southern dialects of the Russian language. Moscow pronunciation norms were transferred to other economic and cultural centers as a model and there they were assimilated on the basis of local dialect features. This is how pronunciation features developed that were not characteristic of the Moscow orthoepic norm (the pronunciation features were most clearly expressed in St. Petersburg - the cultural center and capital of Russia in the 18th-19th centuries).
The pronunciation system of the modern Russian literary language in its basic and defining features does not differ from the pronunciation system of the pre-October era. The differences between one and the other are of a private nature (certain features of pronunciation vernacular have disappeared, in some cases there has been a convergence of pronunciation with spelling, new pronunciation options have appeared). Although there is no complete unification of literary pronunciation, in general, modern orthoepic norms represent a consistent system that is developing and improving. Theater, radio broadcasting, television, sound films play a huge role in the formation of literary pronunciation, which serve as a powerful means of spreading orthoepic norms and maintaining their unity.
The issues of correct literary pronunciation are studied by a special linguistic discipline - orthoepy (from the Greek orthos - correct and epos - speech). Orthoepic rules and recommendations have always been in the focus of attention of Russian philologists, as well as representatives of those professions whose activities are directly related to public speaking in front of an audience: statesmen and public figures, lecturers, announcers, commentators, journalists, artists, translators, teachers of Russian and foreign languages tongues, preachers, lawyers. But in recent years, interest in the problems of the culture of oral speech has noticeably increased among the most diverse strata of society. This is facilitated by socio-economic changes in our country, the democratization of all aspects of life. The practice of broadcasting parliamentary debates and hearings, live speeches has become widespread: statesmen, leaders of parties and movements, political observers, specialists in various fields of science and culture.
Possession of the norms of literary pronunciation, the ability to expressively and correctly formulate a sounding speech is gradually recognized by many as an urgent social necessity.
Historically, the development and formation of the rules of Russian orthoepy has developed in such a way that the literary pronunciation is based on the Moscow pronunciation, on which some variants of the St. Petersburg pronunciation were subsequently “layered”.
Departure from the norms and recommendations of Russian literary pronunciation is regarded as a sign of insufficient speech and general culture, which reduces the authority of the speaker and scatters the attention of listeners. Regional features of pronunciation, incorrectly placed stress, “reduced” colloquial and everyday intonation, and ill-conceived pausing distract from the correct, adequate perception of public speaking.
Therefore, in order to successfully master the orthoepic norm or deepen knowledge in Russian literary pronunciation, it is necessary from the point of view of methodological recommendations:
Ø learn the basic rules of Russian literary pronunciation;
Ø learn to listen to your own speech and the speech of others;
Ø listen and study exemplary literary pronunciation, which is owned by radio and television announcers, masters of the artistic word;
Ø consciously compare your pronunciation with the exemplary one, analyze your mistakes and shortcomings;
Ø correct them by constant speech training in preparation for public speaking.
The study of the rules and recommendations of literary pronunciation should begin with the distinction and awareness of the two main styles of pronunciation: full, recommended for public speaking, and incomplete (colloquial colloquial), which is common in everyday communication. The full style is characterized primarily by the observance of the basic requirements of the orthoepic norm, clarity and distinctness of pronunciation, the correct placement of verbal and logical stress, moderate tempo, correct pausing, neutral intonation pattern of the phrase and speech as a whole. With an incomplete pronunciation style, there is an excessive reduction in vowels, falling out of consonants, indistinct pronunciation of individual sounds and combinations, excessive emphasis on words (including official ones), inconsistent speech tempo, and unwanted pauses. If in everyday speech these features of pronunciation are acceptable, then in public speaking they must be avoided.
the presence of a linguistic sign of two or more meanings. A linguistic sign is a two-sided unit of language, which is a unity of the content plan (signified) and the expression plan (signifier), but, despite the interdependence of the two sides of the sign, they obey the general law of asymmetry in the language, a particular case of which is ambiguity.
Ambiguity manifests itself in the fact that different signifieds correspond to one signifier. The main types of such correspondence are polysemy (or polysemy) and homonymy. Polysemy is the presence of a language unit of two or more meanings between which there is a connection; for example, the word needle may refer to a sewing tool ( sewing needle), a metal rod with a pointed end (gramophone needle), leaf coniferous tree (pine needle), a prickly formation on the body of some animals ( hedgehog needles), but in all cases there is a common component of meaning: "something long and sharp". Homonymy sound and graphic coincidence of different language units, the meanings of which are not related to each other, for example marriage"marriage" and marriage"product defect". Since in written languages, the signifier has oral (sound) and written (graphic) forms, in addition to homonymy, homophony is also distinguished sound coincidence with a difference in the spelling of language units ( horn And rock) and homography graphic coincidence with a difference in pronunciation of language units ( atlas And atlas).
The types of ambiguity of signs A and B can be schematically represented as follows:
| writing | ____ № ____ | |||||||
| sounding | ____ № ____ |
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| meaning | ____ № ____ | ____ № ____ | ____ № ____ |
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| polysemy | homonymy | homophony | homography |
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Ambiguity manifests itself at all language levels, where significant units are distinguished: at the level of morphemes, word forms, words, phraseological units, phrases and sentences.
Moreover, the term "ambiguity" is also used in graphics a section of linguistics that studies the relationship between phonemes and graphemes one-plane (having no content plan) language units. There is no one-to-one correspondence between phonemes and graphemes in any letter, i.e. such a ratio, when each grapheme conveys only one phoneme, and each phoneme is conveyed by only one grapheme. Usually, one grapheme can denote different phonemes, and vice versa, one phoneme can be denoted by different graphemes.
The use of one grapheme to denote different phonemes is called polyphony (polysemy) of the grapheme. Yes, in English language letter g before front vowels denotes the sound ( pa g e, G erman), in other positions [g] ( g ood, ba g ); letter in french g before front vowels denotes a sound, before vowels A , O and before consonants [g] ( g rand), in the final position is not pronounced at all ( san g ); V German letter s before a vowel denotes the sound [z] ( S ack), before consonants p And t [] ( s pizza, s till), before other consonants and at the end of the word [s] ( au s ); in Russian, the same consonant letter can denote consonant sounds that are paired in hardness / softness and sonority / deafness, for example, the letter h in words h arya, h erno,ra h ,re h b denotes the sounds [s], [s "], [s] and [s"], respectively. Polyphony sometimes leads to homography of words.
On the other hand, the possibility of denoting the same phoneme or a differential feature of a phoneme by different graphemes is called polygraphemic. So, in English, the phoneme [s] can be conveyed by letters c (c inema) and s (s inger); in French, the phoneme [v] is also denoted by the letter v (v oyage), and a letter w (w agon); in German, letters are used to denote the phoneme [f] f (F abrik), v (v ier) and letter combination ph (Ph oto); in Russian words ka With ka And uka h ka letters With And h transmit the same hollow sound. Polygraphemism can lead to homophony of words.
Maslov Yu.S. Homonyms in the dictionary and homonymy in the language. In the book: Questions of the theory and history of language. Leningrad, 1963
Jordan L.N. Syntactic homonymy in Russian(in terms of automatic analysis and synthesis). NTI, 1967, No. 5
Vinogradov V.V. Selected Works: Studies in Russian Grammar. M., 1975
Kim O.M. Transposition at the level of parts of speech and the phenomenon of homonymy in modern Russian. Tashkent, 1978
Soboleva P.A. Derivative polysemy and homonymy. M., 1980
Gladky A.V. Syntactic structures of natural language in automated systems communication. M., 1985
Akhmanova O.S. Dictionary of homonyms of the Russian language, 3rd ed. M., 1986
Dreyzin F.A. Syntactic homonymy. In: Machine Translation and Applied Linguistics. M., 1988
Malakhovskiy L.V. Theory of lexical and grammatical homonymy. Leningrad, 1990
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