Organisms existing in hot springs. The organisms of thermal water
Some organisms, if we compare them with others, have a number of undeniable advantages, for example, the ability to withstand extremely high or low temperatures. There are a lot of such robust living beings in the world. The article below you will get acquainted with the most amazing of them. They, without exaggeration, are able to survive even in extreme conditions.
1. Himalayan spiders
Mountain geese, as you know, are among the highest flying birds in the world. They are able to fly at an altitude of more than 6 thousand meters above the ground.
Do you know where the highest locality on the ground? In Peru. This is the city of La Rinconada, located in Andes near the border with Bolivia at an altitude of about 5100 meters above sea level.
Meanwhile, the record of the highest living creatures on the planet went to the land of Himalayan spiders, the Euophrys Omnispeurstes (Euophrys Omnispeurstes - "Standing All"), which live in secluded corners and cracks on the slopes of Mount Everest. Climbers found them even at an altitude of 6700 meters. These tiny spiders are powered by insects, which makes a strong wind to the mountain peak. They are the only alive creatures that are permanent in such a huge height, not counting, of course, some species of birds. It is also known that the Himalayan spiders are capable of surviving even in conditions of lack of oxygen.
2. Giant Kangury Jumper
When we are asked to call an animal that can do without drinking water For long periods of time, the first thing that comes to mind is a camel. However, in the desert without water, it can hold out no more than 15 days. And no - camels do not store water reserves in their humps, as many mistakenly believe. Meanwhile, on Earth, there are still such animals that live in the desert and are able to live without a single drop of water throughout life!
Giant kangaroic jumpers are relatives of Bobrov. The duration of their lives is from three to five years. Water giant kangaroic jumpers get along with food, and they feed mostly seeds.
Giant kangaroic jumpers, as scientists noted, do not sweat at all, so they do not lose, but, on the contrary, accumulate water in the body. You can find them in the Death Valley (California). Giant kangaroic jumpers in this moment are threatened with disappearance.
3. High temperatures resistant worms
Since water conducts heat from the human body about 25 times more efficiently than air, then the temperature equal to 50 degrees Celsius, in the depths of the sea will be much more dangerous than on land. That is why bacteria flourish under water, and not multicellular organisms that do not stand too high temperatures. But there are exceptions ...
Sea deep-sea column worms of Paralvinella Sulfincola (Paralvinella Sulfincola), which dwell next to hydrothermal sources at the bottom Pacific Oceanmay be the most warm-loving living creatures on the planet. The results of an experiment conducted with the heating of the aquarium showed that these worms prefer to settle there, where the temperature reaches 45-55 degrees Celsius.
4. Greenland Polar Shark
Greenland polar sharks are among the largest living beings on the planet Earth, but scientists have practically nothing know about them. They float very slowly, along with an ordinary swimmer-lover. Nevertheless, to see the Greenland polar sharks in the ocean waters is almost possible, since they, as a rule, live at a depth of 1200 meters.
Greenland polar sharks are also considered the most colder creatures in the world. They prefer to dwell in places where the temperature reaches 1-12 degrees Celsius.
Greenland polar sharks live in cold waters, therefore, they have to save energy; This explains the fact that they swim very slowly - at a speed of no more than two kilometers per hour. Greenland polar sharks are also called "sleeping sharks." In eating, they are not picky: eat all that will be able to catch.
According to some scientists, the life expectancy of the Greenland polar sharks can reach 200 years, but until it has been proven.
5. Devilish worms
For several decades, scientists thought that only single-celled organisms were able to survive at very large depths. It was believed that the multicellular forms of life there cannot be durable due to lack of oxygen, pressure and high temperatures. Nevertheless, quite recently, the researchers discovered several thousand meters from the surface of microscopic worms at the depth.
Nematodes of HalicePhalobus Mephisto, named after a demon from the German folklore, were discovered by Gaetan Borghoni and Tallis Ontott in 2011 in water samples taken at a depth of 3.5 kilometers in one of the caves of South Africa. Scientists find out that they show high durability in various extreme conditions, like those round worms who survived the catastrophe of Colombia shuttle, which occurred on February 1, 2003. The detection of devilish worms can contribute to the expansion of the search area of \u200b\u200blife on Mars and any other planet of our galaxy.
6. Lygushki
Scientists noticed that some types of frogs literally freeze with the onset of winter and, thawing in the spring, return to a full-fledged life. IN North America There are five species of such frogs, the most common of them is Rana Sylvatica, or a forest frog.
Forest frogs do not know how to go into the ground, so with the onset of cold, they just hide under fallen leaves and freeze, like everything around. Inside the body, they have a natural "antifreeze" protective mechanism, and they, like a computer, switch to "sleep mode". Survive winter in many ways allow glycose reserves in the liver. But the most amazing is that forest frogs show their amazing ability wildlifeand in laboratory conditions.
7. Deepive bacteria
We all know that the deepest point of the world's ocean is the Mariana Wpadina, which is at a depth of more than 11 thousand meters. At its bottom, water pressure reaches 108.6 MPa, which is about 1072 times the normal atmospheric pressure at the ocean level. A few years ago, scientists with high resolution cameras placed in glass spheres found in the Mariana Wpadine of Giant Ameb. According to James Cameron, who led the expedition, other forms of life also flourish in it.
Having studied water samples from the bottom Mariana VpadinaScientists discovered a huge amount of bacteria in it, which, surprisingly, actively multiplied, despite the greater depth and extreme pressure.
8. BDELLOIDEA.
BDELLOIDEA travelers are small invertebrate animals that are usually found in fresh water.
Representatives of Kolovoltok BDELLOIDEA males are absent, the populations are represented only by parthenogenetic females. BDELLOIDEA is multiplier by an affordable way, which, according to scientists, negatively affects their DNA. And what is the most the best way Were these harmful effects? Answer: Eat DNA of other life forms. Thanks to this approach, BDELLOIDEA has developed an amazing ability to withstand extreme dehydration. Moreover, they can survive even after getting fatal for most living organisms of radiation dose.
Scientists believe that the ability of BDELLOIDEA to DNA repair was initially given to them for survival under high temperatures.
9. Cockroaches
There is a popular myth that after the nuclear war on earth alive, only cockroaches will remain. These insects are able to do without food and water, but even more affects the fact that they can live many days after being listened to their heads. Cockroaches appeared on Earth 300 million years ago, even earlier than dinosaurs.
The leading "legends destroyers" in one of the gears decided to check the cockroaches on the vitality during several experiments. At first they were subjected to a certain amount of insect radiation in 1000 Rad - a dose capable of killing a healthy person in minutes. Of these, they managed to survive almost half. After destroyers, the legends increased the radiation power to 10 thousand rad (as in the atomic bombardment of Hiroshima). This time only 10 percent of cockroaches survived. When the radiation capacity reached 100 thousand, not one cockroach, unfortunately, could not be left alive.
.(Source: "Biological Encyclopedic Dictionary." Ch. Red. M. S. Gilyarov; Radric.: A. A. Babaev, G. M. Vinberg, G. A. Zavarzin, and others - 2nd ed., Focused . - M.: Sov. Encyclopedia, 1986.)
Watch what is "thermophilic organisms" in other dictionaries:
- (Thermo ... gr. Phileo love) Thermophila organisms (advantage. Microscopic), which can live with relatively high temperatures (up to 70); Natural habitats are various hot springs and thermal waters Wed. Cryophilic ... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language
- (from the thermo (see the thermo ...) ... and Greek. Philéo love) thermophiles, organisms living at a temperature greater than 45 ° C (disastrous for most living beings). Such are some fish, representatives of various invertebrates (worms, ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
- ... Wikipedia
Organisms Scientific classification Classification: Observation Organisms Nuclear Non-Core Organism (Late. Organismus from Latelain Organizo ... Wikipedia
Lower organisms, like all living beings, can only live with exactly certain external conditions of their existence, i.e. the conditions of the medium in which they live, and for each external factor, for temperature, pressure, humidity, etc.
So called bacteria that have the ability to develop at temperatures above 55 60 ° C. Mikel (Miquel) first found and highlighted from the water of a stationary bacillus, capable of living and multiply at a temperature of 70 ° C. Van Tigem (Van Tieghem) ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron
Organisms Scientific Classification Classification: Orthodox Organisms Nuclear Non-Core (Late Late Classes (detachments) for such parameters like ... Wikipedia
Some organisms have a special advantage that allows them to withstand the most extreme conditions, where others simply do not cope. Among such abilities can be noted resistance to huge pressure, extreme temperatures and others. These ten creatures from our list will give odds to anyone who dares to claim the title of the most endless organism.
10. Himalayan Jumping Spider
Asian Wild Goose is famous for flights at an altitude of more than 6.5 kilometers, while the highest settlement, inhabited by people, is at an altitude of 5100 meters, in Peruvian Andes. Nevertheless, the high-along record belongs not to gesyam, but the Himalayan Omnisuperstees (Euophrys Omnispeurstes). Upgraded at an altitude of over 6700 meters, this spider feeds mainly by small insects listed there with gusts of the wind. Key feature This insect is the ability to survive in the conditions of almost the absence of oxygen.
9. Giant Kangury Jumper
Usually, when we reflect on animals that are capable of living all of all without water, camel immediately comes to mind. But camels are able to hold out without water in the desert just 15 days. Meanwhile, you will be surprised when you find out that there is an animal in the world that can live all his life and without drinking a drop of water. Giant Kangury jumper is a close relative of Bobrov. The average duration of their life is usually from 3 to 5 years. Moisture they usually get out of food, entering various seeds. In addition, these rodents do not sweat, thereby avoiding additional water losses. Usually these animals live in the valley of death, and at the moment are under threat of disappearance.
Since heat in water is more efficiently transmitted by organisms, the water temperature of 50 degrees Celsius will be much more dangerous than the same air temperature. For this reason, in hot underwater sources, predominantly bacteria flourish, which you will not say about the multicellular forms of life. Nevertheless, there is a special kind of worms, called Paralvinella Sulfincola, which is glad to be placed in places where water reaches temperatures in 45-55 degrees. Scientists conducted an experiment where one of the walls of the aquarium was heated, as a result, it turned out that Cerves preferred to remain in this place, ignoring cooler places. It is believed that such a feature was produced at worms so that they could be touched by bacteria, in abundance, watering in hot springs. Since they did not have before natural enemiesBacteria were relatively easy prey.
7. Greenland Polar Shark
Greenland polar shark is one of the largest and least studied sharks of the planet. Despite the fact that they float quite slowly (any lover-amateur can be overtaken), they are extremely rare. This is due to the fact that this type of shark, as a rule, dwells at a depth of 1200 meters. In addition, this shark is one of the most stable cold. Usually it prefers to remain in water, the temperature of which fluctuates in the interval between 1 and 12 degrees Celsius. Since these sharks dwell in cold waters, they have to move extremely slowly to spend their energy to the minimum. In food, they are inseparable and eat everything that comes across on the way. There are rumors that their life lifetime is about 200 years, but no one has yet been able to confirm or disprove it.
6. Devilsky worm
For many decades, scientists believed that only single-celled organisms are able to survive at large depths. In their opinion, high pressure, lack of oxygen and extreme temperatures were on the way in multicellular creatures. But then microscopic worms were discovered at a depth of several kilometers. Named HalicePhalobus Mephisto, in honor of the demon from the German folklore, it was found in water samples, at a depth of 2.2 kilometers from the surface of the Earth, which were in one of the caves in South Africa. They managed to survive extreme conditions ambientIt is possible to assume that life in our galaxy is possible on Mars and on other planets.
5. Lygushki
Some species of frogs are widely known due to their ability literally freeze for the entire winter period and revive with the arrival of spring. In North America, five species of such frogs were found, the most common among which is the usual woody frog. Since wood frogs are not very strong in corpusing, then they are hidden simply under fallen foliage. In their veins, there is a substance like antifreeze, and although their hearts eventually stop, this is a temporary phenomenon. The basis of their technique of survival is a huge concentration of glucose entering blood from the liver Frog. It is even more surprising, so this is the fact that frogs are able to demonstrate their ability to freeze not only in a natural environment, but also in laboratory conditions, allowing scientists to reveal their secrets.
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4. Deep sea microbes
We all know that the deepest point in the world is the Mariana Wpadina. Its depth reaches almost 11 kilometers, and the pressure there exceeds atmospheric 1100 times. A few years ago, scientists managed to detect a giant ameb there, which were able to shoot with high resolution chamber and a protected glass sphere from that huge pressure, which reigns at the bottom. Moreover, the recent expedition sent by James Cameron himself showed that other forms of life could exist in the depths of the Mariana depression. Samples of bottom sediments were mined, which proved that Wpadina literally tends to microbes. This fact struck scientists, because the extreme conditions reigning there, as well as huge pressure - not a paradise corner.
3. BDELLOIDEA.
Becoverings of the type of BDELLOIDEA are incredibly tiny invertebrate female, usually they are found in fresh water. From the moment of their discovery, there was no one of the male of this species, and the proven carriages themselves multiply the useless way, which, in turn, destroys their own DNA. They restore their native DNA by entering other types of microorganisms. Thanks to this ability, proofing can withstand extreme dehydration, moreover, they are able to withstand such levels of radiation that would kill most of the living organisms of our planet. Scientists believe that their ability to restore their DNA as a result of the need for survival in an extremely arid environment.
2. Tracakan.
There is a myth that cockroaches will be the only alive organisms that will survive a nuclear war. In fact, these insects are able to live without water and food a few weeks, and moreover, they can live without a head. Cockroaches exist here are already 300 million years, surviving even dinosaurs. Discovery channel was conducted a number of experiments that had to show, survive or no cockroaches with powerful nuclear radiation. As a result, it turned out that almost half of all insects was able to survive radiation in 1000 years old (such radiation was able to kill an adult healthy person in just 10 minutes of exposure), moreover, 10% of the cockroaches survived when exposed to radiation in 10,000, which is equal to radiation at a nuclear explosion in Hiroshima. Unfortunately, none of these little insects survived after the radiation dose of 100,000 is glad.
1. Skirts
Tiny aqueous organisms, called low-weeks, turned out to be the most endless organisms of our planet. These, at first glance, cute animals are able to survive almost any extreme conditions, whether it is heat or cold, huge pressure or high radiation. They are able to survive some time even in space. In extreme conditions and in a state of extreme dehydration, these creatures are able to remain alive for several decades. They come to life, it is worth only to put them in a reservoir.
High temperatures are harmful for almost everything alive. Enhance the temperature of the medium to +50 ° C is quite enough to cause the oppression and death of a wide variety of organisms. Do not have to talk about higher temperatures.
The temperature of the spread of life is the temperature mark of +100 ° C, at which the protein denaturation occurs, that is, the destruction of the structure of protein molecules. For a long period, it was believed that in nature there are no such creatures that would calmly transfer temperatures in the range from 50 to 100 ° C. However, the last discoveries of scientists talk about the opposite.
At first, bacteria were opened, adapted to life in hot springs with water temperature up to +90 ºС. In 1983, there was another major scientific discovery. A group of American biologists conducted a study of sources of thermal waters at the bottom of the Pacific Ocean.
Similar to truncated cones Black smokers are at a depth of 2000 m. Their height is 70 m, and the diameter of the base is 200 m. For the first time, smokers were opened at the Galapagos Islands.
Located at great depths, these "black smokers", as geologists call them, actively absorb water. Here it is heated due to heat, coming from the deep-chipped substance of the Earth, and takes the temperature of more than +200 ° C.
Water in sources does not boil only because it is under high pressure and is enriched with metals from the bowels of the planet. Over the "black smokers" raised a pillar of water. Created here, at a depth of about 2000 m (and even a lot more) pressure equals 265 atm. At such a high pressure, even mineralized water of some sources, having a temperature of up to +350 ° C, do not boil.
As a result of mixing with ocean water, the thermal waters are relatively quickly cooled, but the bacteria discovered at these depths are trying to stay away from the cooled water. Amazing microorganisms adapted to feed on minerals in those waters that heated to +250 ° C. Lower temperatures act on microbes depressing. Already in water with a temperature of order of +80 ° C of bacteria, although they retain vitality, but they cease to multiply.
Scientists do not know exactly what the secret of fantastic endurance of these tiny living beings that easily carry the heating to the melting point of tin.
The shape of the body of bacteria, inhabiting black smokers, incorrect. Often, organisms are equipped with long outgrows. Bacteria absorb sulfur, turning it into the organic. Pogonphors and antimemers formed symbiosis with them to eat this organic.
Careful biochemical studies have made it possible to identify the presence of a protective mechanism in bacterial cells. The molecule of the substance of the DNA heredity, on which genetic information is kept, in a number of species is enveloped by a layer of protein absorbing excess heat.
DNA itself includes an abnormally high content of guanine-cytosine couple. All other living beings on our planet the number of these associations inside DNA is much less. It turns out that the relationship between guanin and the cytosine is very difficult to destroy by heating.
Therefore, most of these compounds simply serves the purpose of hardening the molecule and only then the goals of coding genetic information.
Amino acids serve as composite parts of protein molecules, in which they are held due to special chemical bonds. If we compare proteins of deep-water bacteria with similar to those listed above by proteins by proteins of other living organisms, it turns out that at the expense of additional amino acids in the proteins of high-temperature microbes there are additional connections.
But experts are confident that the secret of bacteria is not at all. The heating of the cells within +100 - 120º is quite enough to damage the DNA protected by the chemical adaptations listed. This means that inside bacteria should also have other ways to avoid the destruction of their cells. The protein from which microscopic inhabitants of thermal sources consist, includes special particles - amino acids of this species that are no longer found in any other creature inhabiting on Earth.
Special protection has a bacterial cell protein molecules with special protective (strengthening) components. Unusually arranged lipids, that is, fats and leafy-like substances. Their molecules are combined chains of atoms. Chemical analysis of lipids of high-temperature bacteria showed that in these organisms lipid chains intertwined between themselves, which serves as an additional strengthening of molecules.
However, these analyzes can be understood differently, therefore, the hypothesis of intertwined chains remains unproved. But even if you accept it for axiom, it is impossible to fully explain the adaptation mechanisms to the temperatures of order +200 ° C.
More highly developed living beings could not achieve the success of microorganisms, but the zoologists know many invertebrates and even fish adapted to life in thermal waters.
Among the invertebrates it is necessary to be called primarily a variety of cave residents inhabiting water bodies fueled by groundwater, which are heated by underground heat. This is in most cases the smallest unicellular algae. And all kinds of crustaceans.
A representative of the equal crustacean thermal thermal thermal treats in the family of spheromatide. He lives in one hot source in Sokcoro (New Mexico, USA). The length of the injection is only 0.5-1 cm. It moves along the bottom of the source and has one pair of antennas intended for orientation in space.
Cave fish, adapted to life in thermal sources, tolerate temperatures up to +40 ° C. Among these creatures are the most noteworthy some carposability, inhabiting the groundwater North America. Among the species of this extensive group, Cyricyriodeon Macuyaris is distinguished.
This is one of the rarest animals of the Earth. A small population of these tiny fish lives in a hot spring, having a depth of only 50 cm. This source is inside the Devil Cave in the Death Valley (California), one of the most arid and sultry places on the planet.
The close relative of Kiprinoodononov is a slug-voiced to life in thermal sources, although inhabiting the underground waters of karst caves in the same geographical area within the United States. The species and related species are highlighted in the family of low-profile, while Cyricyrinoenoses are classified as a separate family of carpsubeys.
Unlike other translucent or milk-creams in the color of the cave inhabitants, including other carposability, Cyricyriodeons are painted in bright blue color. In previous times, these fish were found in several sources and could move freely on groundwater from one reservoir to another.
Local residents in the 19th century have once observed, as in the puddles that arose as a result of filling the hricters from the wheel of the wagon, Cyricyriodeons were seen. By the way, to this day it remains unclear how and why these beautiful fish made their ways together with underground moisture through the layer of loose soil.
However, this mystery is not the main one. It is not clear how the fish can withstand the water temperature to +50 ° C. Be that as it may, it is a strange and inexplicable device that helped Cyricyrodutes survive. These creatures appeared in North America more than 1 million years ago. With the beginning of the glaciation, all carpose-like, except those who mastered underground waters, including thermal.
Almost all types of the family of stancelide represented by small (no more than 2 cm) with equal crustaceans, live in thermal waters with a temperature not lower than +20 C.
When the glacier left, and the climate in California became more arid, in cave springs for 50 thousand years, the temperature, salinity and even the amount of algae feed were preserved in the cave sources. Therefore, fish, without changing, calmly survived prehistoric cataclysms here. Today, all types of cave Cyricyrov are protected by law in the interests of science.
Temperature is an essential environmental factor. The temperature has a huge influence on many aspects of the life of organisms of their geography of distribution, reproduction and other biological properties of organisms dependent on temperature. Range, i.e. The temperature limits in which life may exist, ranges from about -200 ° C to + 100 ° C, sometimes the existence of bacteria in hot springs at 250 ° C is found. In fact, most organisms can exist with an even more narrow temperature range.
Some types of microorganisms, mainly bacteria and algae, are able to live and multiply in hot springs at temperatures close to boiling point. The upper temperature limit for hot source bacteria lies about 90 ° C. Temperature variability is very important from an ecological point of view.
Any kind is capable of living only within a certain temperature range, the so-called maximum and minimal lethal temperatures. Outside these critical extreme temperatures, cold or heat, the death of the body comes. Somewhere between them is optimal temperature, in which the vital activity of all organisms, the living agent as a whole is actively.
For the tolerance of organisms to the temperature regime, they are divided into heuritem and shederm, i.e. Can carry temperature fluctuations in wide limits or narrow limits. For example, lichens and many bacteria can live at different temperatures, or orchids and other thermal-loving plants of tropical belts - are stenothermal.
Some animals are able to maintain a constant body temperature, regardless of ambient temperature. Such organisms are called homootherm. Other animals have a body temperature varies depending on the ambient temperature. They are called pikeloterm. Depending on the method of adaptation of organisms to the temperature regime, they are divided into two ecological groups: crofilles - organisms adapted to cold, to low temperatures; Thermophile - or heat-loving.
Rule Allen. - Ekogographical rule established by D. Allen in 1877. According to this rule among related forms of homoothermal (warm-blooded) animals, leading a similar lifestyle, those that live in a colder climate have relatively smaller speakers of the body: ears, legs, Tails, etc.
A decrease in the speakers of the body leads to a decrease in the relative surface of the body and contributes to the economy of heat.
An example of this rule is representatives of the family of dogs from different regions. The smallest (relative to the length of the body) ears and less elongated muzzle in this family - in the song (the range - the Arctic), and the largest ears and a narrow, elongated muzzle - Fenqueka's fox (the range of sugar).
It is also performed in relation to human populations: the shortest (relative to the size of the body) nose, hands and legs are characteristic of Essico-Aleutian peoples (Eskimos, Inuit), and long arms and feet for trucks and Tutsi.
Bergman rule - Ekogographical rule, formulated in 1847 by the German biologist Carl Bergman. The rule says that among similar forms of homoothermal (warm-blooded) animals are the largest of those who live in conditions of a colder climate - in high latitudes or in the mountains. If there are similar types (for example, species of one kind), which are not significantly different by the nature of the power and lifestyle, then larger species are also found in the conditions of a more severe (cold) climate.
The rule is based on the assumption that the overall heat-product in endothermal species depends on the volume of the body, and the heat transfer rate is from the area of \u200b\u200bits surface. With an increase in the size of organisms, the body volume increases faster than its surface. Experimentally, this rule was first checked on dogs of different sizes. It turned out that heat-product in small dogs is higher by a unit of mass, but regardless of the size it remains almost constant per unit area of \u200b\u200bthe surface.
Bergman's rule is truly often performed both within one species and among close species. For example, the Amur form of a tiger with Far East Larger Sumatrian from Indonesia. The northern subspecies of the wolf on average are larger than southern. Among the loved views of the genus Bear are the largest living in northern latitudes (polar bear, brown bears with about. Kodiak), and the smallest species (for example, spectacled bear) - in areas with a warm climate.
At the same time, this rule was often criticized; It was noted that it cannot have a general nature, since many other factors other than temperature affect the dimensions of mammals and birds. In addition, adaptation to the harsh climate on the population and species level often occur not due to changes in the size of the body, but by changes in the size internal organs (Increase the size of the heart and lungs) or by biochemical adaptations. Taking into account this criticism it is necessary to emphasize that Bergman's rule is statistical and manifests its operation clearly with other things being equal.
Indeed, there are many exceptions to this rule. So, the smallest race of woolly mammoth is known from the Polar Island of Wrangel; Many forest fonts of the wolf are larger than the tundra (for example, disappearing subspecies from the Kenai Peninsula; It is assumed that large-sizes could give these wolves an advantage when hunting on large salts inhabiting peninsulas). The Far Eastern subspecies of the leopard, inhabiting Amur, is significantly less than African. In the examples of the examples, compared forms differ in lifestyle (island and continental populations; a tunder subspecies feeding into smaller prey and forest, feeding larger).
In terms of person, the rule is used to a certain extent (for example, the Pygmeyev tribes, apparently, repeatedly and independently appeared in different areas with a tropical climate); However, due to differences in local diet and customs, migration and drift of genes between populations, restrictions on the applicability of this rule are superimposed.
Gloher rule It is that among related to each other forms (different races or subspecies of one species, related species) homoothermal (warm-blooded) animals, those that live in warm and wet climate, painted brighter than those that live in cold and dry climate. Installed in 1833 by Konstantin Glogher (Gloger C. W. L.; 1803-1863), Polish and German ornithologist.
For example, most of the desert bird species are painted dimly than their relatives from subtropical and tropical forests. The Gloger rule can be explained as concerts of disguise and the influence of climatic conditions for the synthesis of pigments. To a certain degree, the Gloher's rule applies to both intoquillers (cold-blooded) animals, in particular insects.
Humidity as an environmental factor
Initially, all organisms were water. Conquering land, did not lose dependence on the water. Part of All living organisms are water. Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air. Without moisture or water there is no life.
Humidity is a parameter characterizing the content of water vapor in the air. Absolute humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air and depends on temperature and pressure. This amount is called relative humidity (that is, the ratio of the amount of water vapor in the air to the saturated amount of steam under certain conditions of temperature and pressure.)
In nature, there is a daily rhythm of humidity. Humidity ranges vertically and horizontally. This factor along with light and temperature plays a large role in regulating the activity of organisms and their distribution. Humidity changes and temperature effect.
An important environmental factor is to dry air. Especially for land-based organisms, it is of great importance to the dried air effect. Animals adapt, moving into secure places and an active lifestyle lead at night.
Plants absorb water from the soil and almost completely (97-99%) evaporates through the leaves. This process is called transpiration. Evaporation cools the leaves. Thanks to evaporation there is transport ions, through the soil to roots, transportation of ions between cells, etc.
A certain amount of humidity is absolutely necessary for ground organisms. Many of them need a relative humidity of 100% for normal life, and on the contrary, the body is in a normal state, can live for a long time in absolutely dry air, for it constantly loses water. Water is the necessary part of the living matter. Therefore, the loss of water in a known quantity leads to death.
The plants of the dry climate adapts with morphological changes, the reduction of vegetative organs, especially the leaves.
Terrestrial animals also adapt. Many of them drink water, others absorb it through bodies of the body in a liquid or vapor state. For example, most amphibians, some insects and ticks. Most of the desert animals never drink, they satisfy their needs at the expense of water received with food. Other animals get water in the process of oxidation of fats.
Water for living organisms is absolutely necessary. Therefore, organisms apply to habitat depending on their needs: water organisms in water live constantly; Hydrophids can only live in very wet environments.
From the point of view of environmental valence, hydrophitis and hygrofitis are related to a group of stenavigra. Humidity strongly affects the life functions of the organisms, for example, 70% relative humidity was very favorable for field maturation and fertility of female migratory locust. With a favorable reproduction, they cause huge economic damage to many countries.
For environmental assessment of the spread of organisms, the climate dryness indicator is used. Suhesity serves as a selective factor for the environmental classification of organisms.
Thus, depending on the characteristics of local climate humidity, the types of organisms are distributed by environmental groups:
1. Guidatoes are aquatic plants.
2. Hydrophitis are terrestrial water plants.
3. Gigrophytes - land plants living in conditions of high humidity.
4. Mesophytes are plants growing with medium moisturizing
5. Xerophytes are plants growing with insufficient moisture. They, in turn, are divided into: succulents - juicy plants (cacti); Sclerophytes are plants with narrow and small leaves, and roll in the tube. They are also divided into euxerophytes and stipakservophytes. Euxerophytes are steppe plants. Stipakservophyt is a group of narrow-walled turf cereals (Kickl, Ticacher, Tonkonog, etc.). In turn, mesophytes are also divided into mesogigrofitis, mesoxophytes, etc.
Obtaining the temperature in its value, the humidity is nevertheless to the main environmental factors. For most of the history of wildlife, the organic world was represented by exclusively water norms of organisms. An integral part of the enormous majority of living beings is water, and for the implementation of reproduction or merge weight almost all of them need an aquatic environment. Land animals are forced to create artificial in their body water medium For fertilization, and this leads to the fact that the latter becomes internal.
Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air. It can be expressed in grams into a cubic meter.
Light as an environmental factor. The role of light in the life of organisms
Light, there is one of the forms of energy. According to the first law of thermodynamics, or the law of energy conservation, the energy can move from one form to another. According to this law, organisms are a thermodynamic system that is constantly changing with the environment and substance. Organisms, on the surface of the Earth are exposed to the stream of energy, mainly solar energy, as well as the long-wave thermal radiation of cosmic bodies.
Both of these factors determine climatic conditions Environments (temperature, water evaporation rate, air and water movement). On the biosphere of space drops sunlight with 2 cal. 1cm 2 in 1 min. This so-called solar constant. This light, passing through the atmosphere, is weakened and no more than 67% of its energy can reach the surface of the earth into a clear noon, i.e. 1.34 Kal. On cm 2 in 1min. Passing through cloudy cover, water and vegetation, sunlight is even more weakened, and the energy distribution is significantly changed in different parts of the spectrum.
The degree of weakening of sunlight and cosmic radiation depends on the wavelength (frequency) of light. Ultraviolet radiation with a wavelength of less than 0.3 microns almost does not pass through ozone layer (at an altitude of about 25 km). Such radiation is dangerous for a living organism in particular for protoplasm.
In the wildlife, the only source of energy, all plants, except for the Bacteria photosynthesize, i.e. Synthesize organic substances from inorganic substances (i.e., from water, mineral salts and a living nature of the light is the only source of energy, all plants, except for bacteria 2 - with the help of radiant energy in the process of assimilation). All organisms depend in nutrition from earthly photosyntheses i.e. chlorophyllural plants.
Light as an environmental factor is divided into ultraviolet with a wavelength - 0.40 - 0.75 μm and infrared with a wavelength larger than these greatness.
The effect of these factors depends on the properties of organisms. Each type of body adapted to one or another spectrum of the light wavelength. Some types of organisms adapted to ultraviolet, and others to infrared.
Some organisms are able to distinguish the wavelength. They have special light-visible systems and have color vision, which are of great importance in their livelihoods. Many insects are sensitive to short-wave radiation, which man does not perceive. Night butterflies are well perceived by ultraviolet rays. Bees and birds accurately determine their location and oriented on the terrain even at night.
Organisms react strongly on the intensity of light. According to these signs, plants are divided into three environmental groups:
1. Light-loving, sun-billed or helofitis - which are capable of developing normally only under the sunny rays.
2. Teotelubiy, or scyophytes are plants of the lower tiers of forests and deep-water plants, for example, the valley and others.
When the light intensity decreases, photosynthesis slows down. All living organisms have threshold sensitivity of light intensity, as well as to other environmental factors. In various organisms, the threshold sensitivity to environmental factors is non-etinakov. For example, intense light inhibits the development of flies of drosophyll, even causes their death. Do not love light and cockroaches and other insects. In most photosynthetic plants, with a weak intensity of light, the synthesis of proteins is inhibition of the synthesis, and biosynthesis processes are braked in animals.
3. Shadowish or optional helophids. Plants that grow well and in the shade and in the light. In animals, these properties of organisms are called light-minded (photophylli), teothelubiyi (photo reflections), Evifoby - stainless.
Ecological valence
the degree of adaptability of a living organism to medium changes. E. in. It is a species property. It is quantitatively expressed in the medium ranges, within which this species retains normal life. E. in. Registration both with respect to the reaction of the form on individual factors of the medium and in relation to complexes.
In the first case, the views carrying wide changes in the force of the influential factor are denoted by the term consisting of the title of this factor with the "EVRI" prefix (heuritem - the ratio to the effect of temperature, heurigaline - to salting, heuribate - to depth, etc.); Types adapted only to small changes in this factor are denoted by a similar thermal sketching "wall" (stenothermal, stenogaline, etc.). Views with broad E. c. In relation to the contribution of factors, they are called Evribionats (see Evribiontes) as opposed to shuttops (cm.retenobionets), which has a small adaptability. Since hevibionism gives the possibility of a variety of habitats, and the sneakency sharply narrows the circle suitable for the type of stations, these two groups are often referred to as evi-or stenotop.
Evribionts., animals and vegetable organisms capable of exist with significant changes in environmental conditions. For example, the inhabitants of the sea literly transfer regular drainage during low tide, in summer - strong warming, and in winter - cooling, and sometimes freezing (heuritem animals); The inhabitants of the estuary rivers are kept means. water salting oscillations (eurygalin animals); A number of animals exists in a wide range of hydrostatic pressure (heuribate animals). Many terrestrial inhabitants of moderate latitudes are able to withstand large seasonal temperature fluctuations.
Evuryinity of the species increases the ability to carry adverse conditions in the state of the anabiosis (many bacteria, disputes and seeds of many plants, adults of cold and moderate latitudes, winter buds of freshwater lips and msnok, eggs of grocery crustaceans, adult squabbles and some proofs, etc.) or hibes (Some mammals).
Fero rule,the rule, according to to--in nature, all kinds of living organisms are represented not separate isolated individuals, but in the form of sets of numbers (sometimes very large) individuals. S. S. Chetverikov (1903).
View - This is the historically established combination of populations of individuals similar in the morpho-physiological properties that can freely cross each other and give a prolific offspring, which occupy a certain area. Each type of living organisms can be described with a set characteristic features, properties that are called signs of type. Signs of the species, with which one species can be distinguished from the other, are called species criteria.
Most often use seven general criteria Views:
1. Specific type of organization: a set of characteristic features that make it possible to distinguish individuals from individual species.
2. Geographical definiteness: the existence of species of species in a particular place on the globe; Area -rajon habitat of individuals of this species.
3. Environmental definiteness: the individuals of the species live in a specific range of values \u200b\u200bof physical environmental factors, such as temperature, humidity, pressure, etc.
4. Differentiation: The view consists of smaller groups of individuals.
5. Discreteness: individuals of this species are separated from individuals of another gap - Hatusus. Cheatus is determined by the action of insulating mechanisms, such as the mismatch of the reproduction periods, the use of specific behavioral reactions, hybrid sterility, etc.
6. Reproducibility: The reproduction of individuals can be carried out with an affordable way (the degree of variability is low) and sexual (the degree of variability is high, since each organism combines signs of father and mother).
7. A certain level of numbers: the number undergoes periodic (waves of life) and non-periodic changes.
Individuals of any kind are distributed in the space extremely unevenly. For example, the netwoman's nettles within its range occurs only in wet shady places with fertile soil, forming thickets in the floodplains of rivers, streams, around the lakes, in the outskirts of the winds, in mixed forests and bushes of shrubs. The colonies of European Mole, well-visible on the Kholomiks of the Earth, are found on forest edges, meadows and fields. Suitable for life
Habitat Although there are often within the range, but do not cover the whole range, and therefore there are no individuals in the other areas of these species. It makes no sense to look for nettle in a pine forest or cloth on a swamp.
Thus, the unevenness of the distribution of the species in space is expressed in the form of "islands of density", "concenthes". Plots with a relatively high propagation of this species alternate with low numbers. Such "density centers" of the population of each species is called populations. The population is a combination of individuals of this species, for a long time (large number of generations) inhabiting a certain space (part of the range), and isolated from other such aggregates.
Inside the population, free crossing is practically carried out (PumpMix). In other words, the population is a group of freely fastening families living in a long time on a certain territory, and relatively isolated from other such groups. The form, thus, is a set of populations, and the population is a structural unit of the species.
The difference between the population from the form:
1) individuals of different populations are freely engaged in each other,
2) individuals of different populations weakly differ in each other,
3) There is no break between two neighboring populations, that is, there is a gradual transition between them.
The process of speciation. Suppose this species occupies a certain area defined by the nature of nutrition. As a result, the divergence between individuals increases the range. In the new area there will be areas with various feed plants, physicochemical properties, etc. The individuals, which were in various areas of the range, form populations. In the future, as a result, all the increasing differences between the peculiarities will be more and more clearly that the individuals of one population differ in some sign of the individuals of another population. There is a process of divergence of populations. Mutations accumulate in each of them.
Representatives of any kind in the local part of the range form a local population. The combination of local populations associated with homogeneous under the living conditions of areas of the area is ecological population. So, if the view dwells in the meadow and in the forest, they talk about its gums and meadow populations. The population within the range of the species associated with certain geographic borders is called geographical populations.
The dimensions and boundaries of populations can change dramatically. With outbreaks of mass reproduction, the species spread very widely and gigantic populations arise.
A combination of geographical populations with sustainable signs, the ability to cross and give a prolific offspring is called a subspecies. Darwin said that the formation of new species goes through varieties (subspecies).
It should, however, remember that in nature there is often no element.
Mutations taking place in individuals of each subspecies cannot themselves lead to the formation of new species. The reason lies in the fact that this mutation will wander in the population, as individuals are individuals, as we know, reproducely not isolated. If the mutation is useful, it increases the heterozygousness of the population, if it is harmful, it will be simply discarded by the selection.
As a result of the constantly flowing mutation process and free crossing in populations, mutations accumulate. The theory of I. I. Schmalgausen is created, the reserve of hereditary variability, i.e., the overwhelming majority of mutations of recessive and phenotypically do not appear. Upon reaching the high concentration of mutations in a heterozygous state, the crossing of individuals carrying recessive genes is made. At the same time, homozygous individuals appear, in which mutations are already manifested by phenotypically. In these cases, mutations are already subject to control of natural selection.
But this does not yet have decisive values \u200b\u200bfor the process of speciation, because natural populations are open and are constantly alien to the genes from neighboring populations.
There is a stream of genes, DJstatchny to maintain the large similarity of the gene pools (the totality of all genotypes) of all local populations. It is estimated that the replenishment of the gene pool due to alien genes in a population consisting of 200 individuals, each of which has 100 Lokusov LLC, 100 times more than-, due to mutations. As a consequence, no population can change dramatically until it is exposed to the normalizing effect of gene flow. The stability of the population to change its genetic composition under the influence of the selection is called genetic homeostasis.
As a result of genetic homeostasis in the population, the formation of a new species is very difficult. One more condition must be realized! Namely, the isolation of the gene pool of a subsidiary population from the maternal gene pool. Insulation can be in two forms: spatial and temporary. Spatial insulation occurs due to various geographical barriers, such as deserts, forests, rivers, dunes, floodplains. Most often, spatial isolation occurs due to a sharp reduction in the solid range and disintegrated it into individual pockets or niches.
Often the population is isolated as a result of migration. This case arises population-isolante. However, it is usually the number of individuals in the population-insanity of Evusto, there is a danger of inbreeding - degeneracy, knitted with a close-based crossing. Victims based on spatial isolation is called geographical.
The temporal form of isolation includes a change in the timing of the reproduction and shifts of the entire cycle of life. The formation based on temporary insulation is called environmental.
Decisive in both cases is the creation of a new, incompatible with the old, genetic system. Evolution is realized through the speciation, which is why it is suggested that the species is an elementary evolutionary system. Population - elementary evolutionary unit!
Statistical and dynamic characteristics of populations.
Types of organisms are included in biocenosis not by individual individuals, but by populations or their parts. The population is part of the form (consists of individuals of one species), which occupies a relatively homogeneous space and capable of self-regulation and maintaining a certain number. Each type within the territory occupied disintegrates on the population. If we consider the impact of habitat factors on a separately taken organism, then at a certain level of factor (for example, temperature), the studied individual either will survive or die. The picture changes when studying the effects of the same factor on a group of organisms of one species.
Some individuals will die or reduce the vital activity at one particular temperature, others - at a lower one, third - with a higher Factors exist in groupings, or populations, i.e. The aggregate of jointly dwelling individuals with similar heredity. The common sign of the population is the common territory. But within the population can be more or less isolated for different reasons.
Therefore, to give an exhaustive definition of the population is difficult due to the blurring of the boundaries between individual groups of individuals. Each species consists of one or several populations, and population, therefore, is the form of the existence of a species, its smallest evolving unit. For populations different species There are permissible limits of reducing the number of individuals, behind which the existence of a population becomes impossible. There are no accurate data on the critical values \u200b\u200bof populations in the literature. Called values \u200b\u200bof bias. It remains, however, an undoubted fact that the smaller the individuals, the higher the critical meanings of their number. For microorganisms, these are millions of individuals, for insects - dozens and hundreds of thousands, and for large mammals - A few dozens.
The number should not be reduced below the limits behind which the probability of a meeting of sexual partners is sharply reduced. Critical number also depends on other factors. For example, a group lifestyle (colony, flocks, herds) is specific for some organisms. Groups inside the population are relatively separate. There may be such cases when the population of the population is generally quite large, and the number of individual groups is reduced below the critical limits.
For example, a colony (group) of the Peruvian Baclan must have a number of at least 10 thousand individuals, and the herd of reindeer - 300 - 400 goals. To understand the mechanisms of functioning and solving issues of using populations great importance They have information about their structure. There are sexual, age, territorial and other types of structure. In theoretical and applied plans, the most important data on the age structure is the ratio of individual ages (frequently combined) of various ages.
Animals allocate the following age groups:
Juvenile Group (Children) Shenyl group (senile not participating in reproduction)
Adult group (individuals carrying out reproduction).
Typically, normal populations are distinguished by the greatest viability in which all ages are relatively uniformly. In the regressive (extinct) population, senile individuals prevail, which indicates the presence of negative factors that violate the reproductive functions. Urgent measures are required to identify and eliminate the causes of such a condition. Implementing (invasive) populations are presented mainly by young individuals. Their vitality usually does not cause concerns, but the likelihood of outbreaks of excessively high numbers are great, since trophic and other ties were formed in such populations.
Especially dangerous if it is a population of species previously absent in this territory. In this case, the population is usually found and occupy free environmental niche and implement their breeding potential, intensively increasing the number. If the population is in normal or close to normal condition, A person can withdraw from it the number of individuals (in animals) or biomass (in plants), which grows over a period of time between seizures. It must be seized first of all the individuals of the afterproductive age (graduated reproduction). If the purpose of obtaining a certain product is persecuted, then age, gender and other characteristics of populations are adjusted taking into account the task.
Operation of plant community populations (for example, to obtain wood), it is usually timed to the period of age deceleration (product accumulation). This period usually coincides with the maximum accumulation of wood masses per unit area. The population is also characterized by a certain ratio of floors, and the ratio of males and females is not equal to 1: 1. There are cases of a sharp predominance of one or another sex, alternation of generations with the absence of males. Each population may also have a complex spatial structure (divided into more or less large hierarchical groups - from geographic to elementary (micropopulation).
So, if the mortality rate does not depend on the age of individuals, then the survival curve is a declining line (see Figure, Type I). That is, the dying of individuals occurs in this type evenly, the mortality rate remains constant throughout life. Such a curve of survival is peculiar to species, the development of which occurs without metamorphosis with sufficient sustainability of the born offspring. This type is called a type of hydrais - for it is characterized by a survival curve approxing to a straight line. At species, for which the role of external factors in mortality is small, the survival curve is characterized by a slight decrease in a certain age, after which there is a sharp drop in a consequence of natural (physiological) mortality.
Type II in the picture. Close to this type The character of the survival curve is peculiar to man (although the human survival curve is somewhat more common and, thus, is something average between types I and II). This type is called the type of drosophylls: it is precisely it demonstrates drosophylls in laboratory conditions (not eaten by predators). For very many species is characteristic high mortality In the early stages of ontogenesis. In such species, the survival curve is characterized by a sharp drop in the field of younger ages. The individuals who survived the "critical" age demonstrate low mortality and live to large ages. Type is called Oyster type. Type III in the figure. The study of survival curves is of great interest to the ecologist. It allows you to judge what age is one or another species most vulnerable. If the reasons that can change the birth rate or mortality is accounted for by the most vulnerable stage, their influence on the subsequent development of the population will be the greatest. This pattern must be taken into account when organizing hunting or in the fight against pests.
Age and sexual structure of populations.
Any population is inherent in a certain organization. The distribution of individuals in the territory, the ratio of groups of individuals by sex, age, morphological, physiological, behavioral and genetic features reflect the appropriate population structure : Spatial, sex, age, etc. The structure is formed on the one hand based on the common biological properties of species, and on the other - under the influence of abiotic factors of the environment and populations of other species.
The population structure has thus adaptive. Different populations of one species have both similar features and distinctive characterizing the specifics of environmental conditions in their habitats.
In general, except for the adaptive possibilities of individual individuals, certain territories Adaptive features of the group adaptation of the population are formed as a nadindividual system, which indicates that the adaptive peculiarities of the population are much higher than that of the founding individuals.
Age composition - It is important for the existence of the population. The average life expectancy of organisms and the ratio of the number (or biomass) of various ages is characterized by the age structure of the population. The formation of the age structure occurs as a result of the joint action of processes of breeding and mortality.
In any population, 3 age-related environmental groups are distinguished:
Predictive;
Reproductive;
Postproof.
The pre-exploit group includes individuals that are not yet able to reproduce. Reproductive - individuals capable of reproduction. Posproductive - individuals that have lost the ability to reproduce. The duration of these periods is greatly varied depending on the type of organisms.
Under favorable conditions in the population there are all age groups and supported more or less stable age composition. In rapidly growing populations, young individuals are dominated, and in the cutting - old, who are no longer able to multiply intensively. Such populations are minor, not sufficiently stable.
There are species S. simple age structure populations that consist of practically one age individuals.
For example, all annual plants of one population in the spring are in the seedlings stage, then they are almost simultaneously blooming, and the seeds give the autumn.
At the species of S. a complex structure populations simultaneously live several generations.
For example, there are young, mature and aging animals in elephants.
Populations that include many generations (different age groups) more stable, less susceptible to the influence of factors acting on reproduction or mortality in a particular year. Extreme conditions can lead to the death of the most vulnerable age groups, but the most stable survive and give new generation.
For example, a person is seen as a biological view having a complicated age structure. The stability of populations appeared, for example, during World War II.
For the study of the ultimate stroxtep populations, gnafic priests are used, we will use the possible pipamids of the population, which are covered in demogaphic studies (Fig. 9).
Fig.3.9. Age pyramids population.
A - Mass reproduction, in - Stable population, C - Reduced population
The stability of the populations of the form largely depends on sexual structure . The ratios of individual floors. Sex groups inside populations are formed on the basis of differences in morphology (shape and structure of the body) and ecology of various floors.
For example, some insect males have wings, and there are no female, the males of some mammals have horns, but they are missing in females, the males of birds are bright plumage, and the females masking.
Environmental differences are expressed in food preferences (females of many mosquitoes suck blood, and males feed on nectar).
The genetic mechanism provides an approximately equal ratio of the individuals of both sexes at birth. However, the initial ratio is shortly violated as a result of the physiological, behavioral and environmental differences in males and females, causing uneven mortality.
Analysis of the age and sexual structure of populations allows you to predict its number of close generations and years. This is important when evaluating the possibilities of fishing fish, shooting animals, rescue harvest from the invasions of locust and in other cases.
